ABSTRACT
Nonphotochemical quenching acts as a frontline response to prevent excitation energy from reaching the photochemical reaction center of photosystem II before photodamage occurs. Strong fluorescence quenching after merely one multi-turnover saturating light pulse characterizes a unique feature of nonphotochemical quenching in red algae. Several mechanisms underlying red algal nonphotochemical quenching have been proposed, yet which process(es) dominantly account for the strong fluorescence quenching is still under discussion. Here we assessed multiple nonphotochemical quenching processes in the extremophilic red alga Cyanidioschyzon merolae under light pulse and continuous illumination conditions. To assess the nonphotochemical quenching processes that might display different kinetics, fluorescence emission spectra at 77 K were measured after different periods of light treatments, and external fluorophores were added for normalization of the fluorescence level. The phycobilisome- and photosystem II-related nonphotochemical quenching processes were distinguished by light preferentially absorbed by phycobilisomes and photosystems, respectively. Multiple nonphotochemical quenching processes, including the energetic decoupling of phycobilisomes from photosystem II, the energy spillover from phycobilisomes to photosystem I and from photosystem II to photosystem I, were identified along with the previously identified intrinsic quenching within photosystem II. The ability to use multiple nonphotochemical quenching processes appears to maximize the light harvesting efficiency for photochemistry and to provide the flexibility of the energy redistribution between photosystem II and photosystem I. The effect of the various ionophores on the nonphotochemical quenching level suggests that nonphotochemical quenching is modulated by transmembrane gradients of protons and other cations.