Measurement of quantum back action in the audio band at room temperature.

Quantum mechanics places a fundamental limit on the precision of continuous measurements. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle dictates that as the precision of a measurement of an observable (for example, position) increases, back action creates increased uncertainty in the conjugate variable (for example, momentum). In interferometric gravitational-wave detectors, higher laser powers reduce the position uncertainty created by shot noise (the photon-counting error caused by the quantum nature of the laser) but necessarily do so at the expense of back action in the form of quantum radiation pressure noise (QRPN)1. Once at design sensitivity, the gravitational-wave detectors Advanced LIGO2, VIRGO3 and KAGRA4 will be limited by QRPN at frequencies between 10 hertz and 100 hertz. There exist several proposals to improve the sensitivity of gravitational-wave detectors by mitigating QRPN5-10, but until now no platform has allowed for experimental tests of these ideas. Here we present a broadband measurement of QRPN at room temperature at frequencies relevant to gravitational-wave detectors. The noise spectrum obtained shows effects due to QRPN between about 2 kilohertz and 100 kilohertz, and the measured magnitude of QRPN agrees with our model. We now have a testbed for studying techniques with which to mitigate quantum back action, such as variational readout and squeezed light injection7, with the aim of improving the sensitivity of future gravitational-wave detectors.

Towards space-deployable laser stabilization systems based on vibration-insensitive cubic cavities with crystalline coatings.

We present the development of a transportable laser frequency stabilization system with application to both optical clocks and a next-generation gravity mission (NGGM) in space. This effort leverages a 5-cm long cubic cavity with crystalline coatings operating at room temperature and with a center wavelength of 1064 nm. The cavity is integrated in a custom vacuum chamber with dedicated low-noise locking electronics. Our vacuum-mounted cavity and control system are well suited for space applications, exhibiting state-of-the-art noise performance while being resilient to radiation exposure, vibration, shock, and temperature variations. Furthermore, we demonstrate a robust means of automatically (re)locking the laser to the cavity when resonance is lost. We show that the mounted cavity is capable of reaching technology readiness level (TRL) 6, paving the way for high-performance ultrastable laser systems and eventually optical atomic clocks amenable to future satellite platforms.

Surpassing the Standard Quantum Limit Using an Optical Spring.

Quantum mechanics places noise limits and sensitivity restrictions on physical measurements. The balance between unwanted backaction and the precision of optical measurements imposes a standard quantum limit (SQL) on interferometric systems. In order to realize a sensitivity below the SQL, it is necessary to leverage a backaction evading measurement technique, reduce thermal noise to below the level of backaction, and exploit cancellations of any excess noise contributions at the detector. Many proof of principle experiments have been performed, but only recently has an experiment achieved sensitivity below the SQL. In this work, we extend that initial demonstration and realize sub-SQL sensitivity nearly two times better than previous measurements, and with an architecture applicable to interferometric gravitational wave detectors. In fact, this technique is directly applicable to Advanced LIGO, which could observe similar effects with a detuned signal recycling cavity. We measure a total sensitivity below the SQL by 2.8 dB, corresponding to a reduction in the noise power by 72±5.1% below the quantum limit. Through the use of a detuned cavity and the optical spring effect, this noise reduction is tunable, allowing us to choose the desired range of frequencies that fall below the SQL. This result demonstrates access to sensitivities well below the SQL at frequencies applicable to LIGO, with the potential to extend the reach of gravitational wave detectors further into the Universe.

Hybrid membrane-external-cavity surface-emitting laser.

We develop, analyze, and demonstrate an optically-pumped semiconductor disk laser using an active mirror architecture formed by sandwiching the semiconductor gain membrane between two heatspreaders, one of which is coated with a high-reflectivity multilayer. Thermal modeling indicates that this structure outperforms traditional VECSELs. Employing an InGaAs/GaAs MQW gain structure, we demonstrate output powers of approximately 30 W at a center wavelength of λ ≈ 1178 nm in a TEM00 mode using an in-well pumped geometry.

Passive laser power stabilization via an optical spring.

Metrology experiments can be limited by the noise produced by the laser involved via small fluctuations in the laser's power or frequency. Typically, active power stabilization schemes consisting of an in-loop sensor and a feedback control loop are employed. Those schemes are fundamentally limited by shot noise coupling at the in-loop sensor. In this Letter, we propose to use the optical spring effect to passively stabilize the classical power fluctuations of a laser beam. In a proof of principle experiment, we show that the relative power noise of the laser is stabilized from approximately 2 × 10-5 Hz-1/2 to a minimum value of 1.6 × 10-7 Hz-1/2, corresponding to the power noise reduction by a factor of 125. The bandwidth at which stabilization occurs ranges from 400 Hz to 100 kHz. The work reported in this Letter further paves the way for high power laser stability techniques which could be implemented in optomechanical experiments and in gravitational wave detectors.

Laser power stabilization via radiation pressure.

This Letter reports the experimental realization of a novel, to the best of our knowledge, active power stabilization scheme in which laser power fluctuations are sensed via the radiation pressure driven motion they induce on a movable mirror. The mirror position and its fluctuations were determined by means of a weak auxiliary laser beam and a Michelson interferometer, which formed the in-loop sensor of the power stabilization feedback control system. This sensing technique exploits a nondemolition measurement, which can result in higher sensitivity for power fluctuations than direct, and hence destructive, detection. Here we used this new scheme in a proof-of-concept experiment to demonstrate power stabilization in the frequency range from 1 Hz to 10 kHz, limited at low frequencies by the thermal noise of the movable mirror at room temperature.

Simplifying Measurement of Adenoma Detection Rates for Colonoscopy.

BACKGROUND: Adenoma detection rate (ADR) is the colonoscopy quality metric with the strongest association to interval or "missed" cancer. Accurate measurement of ADR can be laborious and costly. AIMS: Our aim was to determine if administrative procedure codes for colonoscopy and text searches of pathology results for adenoma mentions could estimate ADR. METHODS: We identified US Veterans with a colonoscopy using Current Procedure Terminology (CPT) codes between January 2013 and December 2016 at ten Veterans Affairs sites. We applied simple text searches using Microsoft SQL Server full-text searches to query all pathology notes for "adenoma(s)" or "adenomatous" text mentions to calculate ADRs. To validate our identification of colonoscopy procedures, endoscopists of record, and adenoma detection from the electronic health record, we manually reviewed a random sample of 2000 procedure and pathology notes from the 10 sites. RESULTS: Structured data fields were accurate in identification of colonoscopies being performed (PPV = 0.99; 95% CI 0.99-1.00) and identifying the endoscopist of record (PPV of 0.95; 95% CI 0.94-0.96) for ADR measurement. Simple text searches of pathology notes for adenoma mentions had excellent performance statistics as follows: sensitivity 0.99 (95% CI 0.98-1.00), specificity 0.93 (95% CI 0.92-0.95), NPV 0.99 (95% CI 0.98-1.00), and PPV 0.93 (0.91-0.94) for measurement of ADR. There was no clinically significant difference in the estimates of overall ADR vs. screening ADR (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Measuring ADR using administrative codes and text searches from pathology results is an efficient method to broadly survey colonoscopy quality.

Quantum imaging with undetected photons.

Information is central to quantum mechanics. In particular, quantum interference occurs only if there exists no information to distinguish between the superposed states. The mere possibility of obtaining information that could distinguish between overlapping states inhibits quantum interference. Here we introduce and experimentally demonstrate a quantum imaging concept based on induced coherence without induced emission. Our experiment uses two separate down-conversion nonlinear crystals (numbered NL1 and NL2), each illuminated by the same pump laser, creating one pair of photons (denoted idler and signal). If the photon pair is created in NL1, one photon (the idler) passes through the object to be imaged and is overlapped with the idler amplitude created in NL2, its source thus being undefined. Interference of the signal amplitudes coming from the two crystals then reveals the image of the object. The photons that pass through the imaged object (idler photons from NL1) are never detected, while we obtain images exclusively with the signal photons (from NL1 and NL2), which do not interact with the object. Our experiment is fundamentally different from previous quantum imaging techniques, such as interaction-free imaging or ghost imaging, because now the photons used to illuminate the object do not have to be detected at all and no coincidence detection is necessary. This enables the probe wavelength to be chosen in a range for which suitable detectors are not available. To illustrate this, we show images of objects that are either opaque or invisible to the detected photons. Our experiment is a prototype in quantum information--knowledge can be extracted by, and about, a photon that is never detected.

The Macek and Davis experiment revisited: a large ring laser interferometer operating on the 2s2 → 2p4 transition of neon.

We operate a large helium-neon-based ring laser interferometer with single-crystal GaAs/AlGaAs optical coatings on the 2s2→2p4 transition of neon at a wavelength of 1.152276 µm. For either single longitudinal- or phase-locked multi-mode operation, the preferable gas composition for gyroscopic operation is 0.2 and 0.3 mbar of 50:50 neon with total pressures between 6-12 mbar. The Earth rotation bias is sufficient to unlock the device, yielding a Sagnac frequency of approximately 60 Hz.

Frequency domain diffuse optical spectroscopy with a near-infrared tunable vertical cavity surface emitting laser.

We present an approach for performing frequency domain diffuse optical spectroscopy (fd-DOS) utilizing a near-infrared tunable vertical cavity surface emitting laser (VCSEL) that enables high spectral resolution optical sensing in a miniature format. The tunable VCSEL, designed specifically for deep tissue imaging and sensing, utilizes an electrothermally tunable microelectromechanical systems topside mirror to tune the laser cavity resonance. At room temperature, the laser is tunable across 14nm from 769 to 782nm with single mode CW output and a peak output power of 1.3mW. We show that the tunable VCSEL is suitable for use in fd-DOS by measuring the optical properties of a tissue-simulating phantom over the tunable range. Optical properties were recovered within 0.0006mm-1 (absorption) and 0.09mm-1 (reduced scattering) compared to a broadband fd-DOS reference system. Our results indicate that tunable VCSELs may be an attractive choice to enable high spectral resolution optical sensing in a wearable format.

Optical performance of large-area crystalline coatings.

Given their excellent optical and mechanical properties, substrate-transferred crystalline coatings are an exciting alternative to amorphous multilayers for applications in precision interferometry. The high mechanical quality factor of these single-crystal interference coatings reduces the limiting thermal noise in precision optical instruments such as reference cavities for narrow-linewidth laser systems and interferometric gravitational wave detectors. In this manuscript, we explore the optical performance of GaAs/AlGaAs crystalline coatings transferred to 50.8-mm (2-inch) diameter fused silica and sapphire substrates. We present results for the transmission, scattering, absorption, and surface quality of these prototype samples including the defect density and micro-roughness. These novel coatings exhibit optical performance on par with state-of-the-art dielectric structures, encouraging further work focused on the fabrication of larger optics using this technique.

Reduction of absorption losses in MOVPE-grown AlGaAs Bragg mirrors.

Residual p-type doping from carbon has been identified as the root cause of excess absorption losses in (Al)GaAs/AlGaAs Bragg mirrors for high-finesse optical cavities when grown by metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE). Through optimization of the growth parameters with the aim of realizing low carbon uptake, we have shown a path for decreasing the parasitic background absorption in these mirrors from 100 to the 10 ppm range near 1064 nm. This significant reduction is realized via compensation of the carbon acceptors by intentional doping with the donor silicon in the uppermost layer pairs of 40-period GaAs/AlGaAs Bragg mirrors. Thus, we find that such compensation enables MOVPE-derived multilayer mirrors with the potential for a high cavity finesse (>100,000 in the near infrared) approaching the performance levels found with Bragg mirrors grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE).

Observation of an optical spring with a beam splitter.

We present the experimental observation of an optical spring without the use of an optical cavity. The optical spring is produced by interference at a beam splitter and, in principle, does not have the damping force associated with optical springs created in detuned cavities. The experiment consists of a Michelson-Sagnac interferometer (with no recycling cavities) with a partially reflective GaAs microresonator as the beam splitter that produces the optical spring. Our experimental measurements at input powers of up to 360 mW show the shift of the optical spring frequency as a function of power and are in excellent agreement with theoretical predictions. In addition, we show that the optical spring is able to keep the interferometer stable and locked without the use of external feedback.

Regional Variability of Repeat Esophagogastroduodenoscopy Use in the National Veteran Population.

BACKGROUND: Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) procedures are performed frequently to evaluate gastrointestinal disease and symptoms. AIM: To determine regional practice variability of repeat EGDs in a national population. METHODS: The study sample included US Veterans with an outpatient index EGD from 1/1/2008 to 12/2010. We determined risk of repeat endoscopy from 1/2008 to 10/1/2014. A logistic regression model was used to assess the association between the odds of repeated EGD and patient demographics, ICD diagnostic codes, and geographic region. Multivariable logistic regression was performed to obtain the adjusted odds ratio and predicted probabilities of repeat EGDs by region. RESULTS: A total of 202,086 patients had an index endoscopy from 1/2008 to 12/2010. Unique patients with an index endoscopy were predominantly male (93.2%), white (72.8%), and on average 61 years. A total of 58,469 patients (28.9%) had one or more repeat EGDs, accounting for 103,253 repeat procedures through 10/2014. ICD-9-CM codes associated with increased risk of repeat procedures were Barrett's esophagus (OR 3.6, 95% CI 3.5-3.7), dysphagia (OR 1.3, 95% CI 1.2-1.3), ulcer (OR 1.3, 95% CI 2.2-2.4), stricture (OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.7-1.9), and esophageal varices (OR 2.8, 95% CI 2.7-3.0). There was a significant difference in the probability of repeat EGD by VA region, with the Midwest region having the highest probability (31.2%) and Southeast the lowest probability (27.3%). This difference would account for 400 more EGD procedures per 10,000 Veterans, after adjusting for patient demographics and diagnosis codes. CONCLUSIONS: Regional practice variability accounts for a substantial volume of repeat EGD procedures, regardless of patient characteristics and associated diagnoses.

Stable Optical Trap from a Single Optical Field Utilizing Birefringence.

We report a stable double optical spring effect in an optical cavity pumped with a single optical field that arises as a result of birefringence. One end of the cavity is formed by a multilayer Al_{0.92}Ga_{0.08}As/GaAs stack supported by a microfabricated cantilever with a natural mode frequency of 274 Hz. The optical spring shifts the resonance to 21 kHz, corresponding to a suppression of low frequency vibrations by a factor of about 5 000. The stable nature of the optical trap allows the cavity to be operated without any external feedback and with only a single optical field incident.

Sensing earth's rotation with a helium-neon ring laser operating at 1.15 µm.

We report on the operation of a 2.56 m2 helium-neon based ring laser interferometer at a wavelength of 1.152276 µm using crystalline coated intracavity supermirrors. This work represents the first implementation of crystalline coatings in an active laser system and expands the core application area of these low-thermal-noise cavity end mirrors to inertial sensing systems. Stable gyroscopic behavior can only be obtained with the addition of helium to the gain medium as this quenches the 1.152502 µm (2s4→2p7) transition of the neon doublet which otherwise gives rise to mode competition. For the first time at this wavelength, the ring laser is observed to readily unlock on the bias provided by the earth's rotation alone, yielding a Sagnac frequency of approximately 59 Hz.

Mid-infrared supermirrors with finesse exceeding 400 000.

For trace gas sensing and precision spectroscopy, optical cavities incorporating low-loss mirrors are indispensable for path length and optical intensity enhancement. Optical interference coatings in the visible and near-infrared (NIR) spectral regions have achieved total optical losses below 2 parts per million (ppm), enabling a cavity finesse in excess of 1 million. However, such advancements have been lacking in the mid-infrared (MIR), despite substantial scientific interest. Here, we demonstrate a significant breakthrough in high-performance MIR mirrors, reporting substrate-transferred single-crystal interference coatings capable of cavity finesse values from 200 000 to 400 000 near 4.5 µm, with excess optical losses (scatter and absorption) below 5 ppm. In a first proof-of-concept demonstration, we achieve the lowest noise-equivalent absorption in a linear cavity ring-down spectrometer normalized by cavity length. This substantial improvement in performance will unlock a rich variety of MIR applications for atmospheric transport and environmental sciences, detection of fugitive emissions, process gas monitoring, breath-gas analysis, and verification of biogenic fuels and plastics.

Short-wavelength MEMS-tunable VCSELs.

We present electrically-injected MEMS-tunable vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers with emission wavelengths below 800 nm. Operation in this wavelength range, near the oxygen A-band from 760-780 nm, is attractive for absorption-based optical gas sensing. These fully-monolithic devices are based on an oxide-aperture AlGaAs epitaxial structure and incorporate a suspended dielectric Bragg mirror for wavelength tuning. By implementing electrostatic actuation, we demonstrate the potential for tuning rates up to 1 MHz, as well as a wide wavelength tuning range of 30 nm (767-737 nm).

Phonon-tunnelling dissipation in mechanical resonators.

Microscale and nanoscale mechanical resonators have recently emerged as ubiquitous devices for use in advanced technological applications, for example, in mobile communications and inertial sensors, and as novel tools for fundamental scientific endeavours. Their performance is in many cases limited by the deleterious effects of mechanical damping. In this study, we report a significant advancement towards understanding and controlling support-induced losses in generic mechanical resonators. We begin by introducing an efficient numerical solver, based on the 'phonon-tunnelling' approach, capable of predicting the design-limited damping of high-quality mechanical resonators. Further, through careful device engineering, we isolate support-induced losses and perform a rigorous experimental test of the strong geometric dependence of this loss mechanism. Our results are in excellent agreement with the theory, demonstrating the predictive power of our approach. In combination with recent progress on complementary dissipation mechanisms, our phonon-tunnelling solver represents a major step towards accurate prediction of the mechanical quality factor.

High-spatial-resolution sub-surface imaging using a laser-based acoustic microscopy technique.

Scanning acoustic microscopy techniques operating at frequencies in the gigahertz range are suitable for the elastic characterization and interior imaging of solid media with micrometer-scale spatial resolution. Acoustic wave propagation at these frequencies is strongly limited by energy losses, particularly from attenuation in the coupling media used to transmit ultrasound to a specimen, leading to a decrease in the depth in a specimen that can be interrogated. In this work, a laser-based acoustic microscopy technique is presented that uses a pulsed laser source for the generation of broadband acoustic waves and an optical interferometer for detection. The use of a 900-ps microchip pulsed laser facilitates the generation of acoustic waves with frequencies extending up to 1 GHz which allows for the resolution of micrometer-scale features in a specimen. Furthermore, the combination of optical generation and detection approaches eliminates the use of an ultrasonic coupling medium, and allows for elastic characterization and interior imaging at penetration depths on the order of several hundred micrometers. Experimental results illustrating the use of the laser-based acoustic microscopy technique for imaging micrometer-scale subsurface geometrical features in a 70-µm-thick single-crystal silicon wafer with a (100) orientation are presented.