Perceptions of pregnancy occurring among HIV-serodiscordant couples in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Among HIV serodiscordant couples, most conception involves condomless sex and may confer a period with increased HIV transmission risk if HIV viral load is not suppressed and other precautions are not used. Safer conception strategies enable HIV serodiscordant couples to attain their pregnancy goals while markedly reducing this risk. We explored the perceptions and beliefs held by HIV serodiscordant couples and health care providers concerning pregnancy among HIV serodiscordant couples in Kenya and gathered their thoughts about how these might influence use of safer conception methods. METHODS: We conducted 20 Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) with health care providers offering safer conception counseling and 21 In-Depth Interviews (IDIs) and 4 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with members of HIV serodiscordant couples with immediate pregnancy goals in Thika, Kenya. Data were analyzed using an inductive approach that identified two emergent themes: perceptions towards pregnancy among HIV serodiscordant couples and access to safer conception services. RESULTS: The perceptions held by the community towards couples in HIV serodiscordant relationships having children were largely negative. The participants were aware of the increased HIV transmission risk to the HIV uninfected partners while trying to become pregnant. In the community, having biological children was cherished yet the majority of the couples shied away from accessing safer conception services offered at health facilities due to stigma and lack of knowledge of the existence of such services. Some providers had limited knowledge on safer conception strategies and services and consequently discouraged HIV serodiscordant couples from natural conception. CONCLUSIONS: Negative perceptions towards HIV serodiscordant couples becoming pregnant has hindered access to safer conception services. Therefore, there is need to create a supportive environment for HIV serodiscordant couples with fertility intentions that normalizes their desire to have children and informs the community about the availability of safer conception services.

Development of machine translation technology for assisting health communication: A systematic review.

OBJECTIVES: To (1) characterize how machine translation (MT) is being developed to overcome language barriers in health settings; and (2) based on evaluations presented in the literature, determine which MT approaches show evidence of promise and what steps need to be taken to encourage adoption of MT technologies in health settings. MATERIALS & METHODS: We performed a systematic literature search covering 2006-2016 in major health, engineering, and computer science databases. After removing duplicates, two levels of screening identified 27 articles for full text review and analysis. Our review and qualitative analysis covered application setting, target users, underlying technology, whether MT was used in isolation or in combination with human editing, languages tested, evaluation methods, findings, and identified gaps. RESULTS: Of 27 studies, a majority focused on MT systems for use in clinical settings (n = 18), and eight of these involved speech-based MT systems for facilitating patient-provider communications. Text-based MT systems (n = 19) aimed at generating a range of multilingual health materials. Almost a third of all studies (n = 8) pointed to MT's potential as a starting point before human input. Studies employed a variety of human and automatic MT evaluation methods. In comparison studies, statistical machine translation (SMT) systems were more accurate than rule-based systems when large corpora were available. For a variety of systems, performance was best for translations of simple, less technical sentences and from English to Western European languages. Only one system has been fully deployed. CONCLUSIONS: MT is currently being developed primarily through pilot studies to improve multilingual communication in health settings and to increase access to health resources for a variety of languages. However, continued concerns about accuracy limit the deployment of MT systems in these settings. The variety of piloted systems and the lack of shared evaluation criteria will likely continue to impede adoption in health settings, where excellent accuracy and a strong evidence base are critical. Greater translation accuracy and use of standard evaluation criteria would encourage deployment of MT into health settings. For now, the literature points to using MT in health communication as an initial step to be followed by human correction.

LuxS promotes biofilm maturation and persistence of nontypeable haemophilus influenzae in vivo via modulation of lipooligosaccharides on the bacterial surface.

Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHI) is an extremely common airway commensal which can cause opportunistic infections that are usually localized to airway mucosal surfaces. During many of these infections, NTHI forms biofilm communities that promote persistence in vivo. For many bacterial species, density-dependent quorum-signaling networks can affect biofilm formation and/or maturation. Mutation of luxS, a determinant of the autoinducer 2 (AI-2) quorum signal pathway, increases NTHI virulence in the chinchilla model for otitis media infections. For example, bacterial counts in middle-ear fluids and the severity of the host inflammatory response were increased in luxS mutants compared with parental strains. As these phenotypes are consistent with those that we have observed for biofilm-defective NTHI mutants, we hypothesized that luxS may affect NTHI biofilms. A luxS mutant was generated using the well-characterized NTHI 86-028NP strain and tested to determine the effects of the mutation on biofilm phenotypes in vitro and bacterial persistence and disease severity during experimental otitis media. Quantitation of the biofilm structure by confocal microscopy and COMSTAT analysis revealed significantly reduced biomass for NTHI 86-028NP luxS biofilms, which was restored by a soluble mediator in NTHI 86-028NP supernatants. Analysis of lipooligosaccharide moieties using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunoblotting showed decreased levels of biofilm-associated glycoforms in the NTHI 86-028NP luxS strain. Infection studies showed that NTHI 86-028NP luxS had a significant persistence defect in vivo during chronic otitis media infection. Based on these data, we concluded that a luxS-dependent soluble mediator modulates the composition of the NTHI lipooligosaccharides, resulting in effects on biofilm maturation and bacterial persistence in vivo.

Evaluating the Usefulness of Translation Technologies for Emergency Response Communication: A Scenario-Based Study.

BACKGROUND: In the United States, language barriers pose challenges to communication in emergency response and impact emergency care delivery and quality for individuals who are limited English proficient (LEP). There is a growing interest among Emergency Medical Services (EMS) personnel in using automated translation tools to improve communications with LEP individuals in the field. However, little is known about whether automated translation software can be used successfully in EMS settings to improve communication with LEP individuals. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this work is to use scenario-based methods with EMS providers and nonnative English-speaking users who identified themselves as LEP (henceforth referred to as LEP participants) to evaluate the potential of two automated translation technologies in improving emergency communication. METHODS: We developed mock emergency scenarios and enacted them in simulation sessions with EMS personnel and Spanish-speaking and Chinese-speaking (Mandarin) LEP participants using two automated language translation tools: an EMS domain-specific fixed-sentence translation tool (QuickSpeak) and a statistical machine translation tool (Google Translate). At the end of the sessions, we gathered feedback from both groups through a postsession questionnaire. EMS participants also completed the System Usability Scale (SUS). RESULTS: We conducted a total of 5 group sessions (3 Chinese and 2 Spanish) with 12 Chinese-speaking LEP participants, 14 Spanish-speaking LEP participants, and 17 EMS personnel. Overall, communications between EMS and LEP participants remained limited, even with the use of the two translation tools. QuickSpeak had higher mean SUS scores than Google Translate (65.3 vs 48.4; P=.04). Although both tools were deemed less than satisfactory, LEP participants showed preference toward the domain-specific system with fixed questions (QuickSpeak) over the free-text translation tool (Google Translate) in terms of understanding the EMS personnel's questions (Chinese 11/12, 92% vs 3/12, 25%; Spanish 12/14, 86% vs 4/14, 29%). While both EMS and LEP participants appreciated the flexibility of the free-text tool, multiple translation errors and difficulty responding to questions limited its usefulness. CONCLUSIONS: Technologies are emerging that have the potential to assist with language translation in emergency response; however, improvements in accuracy and usability are needed before these technologies can be used safely in the field.

A clinic-based tablet application to support safer conception among HIV serodiscordant couples in Kenya: feasibility and acceptability study.

BACKGROUND: HIV serodiscordant couples are at heightened risk of HIV transmission when attempting to conceive, yet reproductive goals can outweigh concerns about HIV exposure. Safer conception strategies support fertility desires while minimizing HIV transmission risk and novel mHealth tools can optimize their use. The objective of this analysis is to examine the feasibility and usability of short message service (SMS) messages and a mobile application to support safer conception for HIV serodiscordant couples. METHODS: We enrolled 74 heterosexual HIV serodiscordant couples with immediate pregnancy desires into a pilot safer conception intervention study in Thika, Kenya. Prior to pregnancy, women received daily 6-item SMS surveys to capture fertility indicators (e.g., menses, basal body temperature) and sexual behavior. The intervention also provided daily oral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for the HIV-negative partner and in-depth counseling to accompany publicly-provided antiretroviral therapy (ART) for the HIV-infected partner. Couples attended monthly visits until pregnancy occurred. We measured PrEP use with medication event monitoring system (MEMS) caps and ART use via quarterly viral load quantification. We imported SMS, MEMS, and viral load data into an Android tablet application designed specifically for this setting for couples to view during clinic visits and included predictions of peak fertility days using SMS data. We used descriptive statistics to summarize SMS response data and developed a Google Analytics platform to monitor tablet application usage during follow-up. We also conducted semi-structured interviews with a purposive sample of 5 healthcare providers and 19 couples. Qualitative data were analyzed using a modified constant comparative approach to identify themes related to mHealth intervention feasibility and acceptability. RESULTS: In our sample, 34 (45.9%) couples had an HIV-infected female partner. The median age of the female partner was 30 years [interquartile range (IQR), 27-35 years], education was 10 years (IQR, 8-12 years), and partnership duration was 3 years (IQR, 2-7 years). Couples were followed for a median of 218 days (IQR, 116-348 days) prior to pregnancy. Participants completed 13,181 of 16,905 (78.0%) SMS surveys surveys sent with a median of 167 completed surveys (IQR, 74-299) per participant. Most participants completed at least 75% of the total SMS messages received (N=58; 77.3%). The tablet application was opened by counselors 1,806 times during the study period (March 2016 through April 2018). In qualitative interviews, the SMS messages were reportedly easy to respond to and "part of the daily routine". Few participants had concerns about message confidentiality. mHealth tools were also found to be acceptable for tracking fertility indicators and enhancing provider-patient communication. CONCLUSIONS: mHealth strategies are feasible to use and acceptable to support the delivery of safer conception intervention services among HIV serodiscordant couples in Kenya.

Delivering safer conception services to HIV serodiscordant couples in Kenya: perspectives from healthcare providers and HIV serodiscordant couples.

INTRODUCTION: For HIV serodiscordant couples in resource-limited settings, pregnancy is common despite the risk of sexual and/or perinatal HIV transmission. Some safer conception strategies to reduce HIV transmission during pregnancy attempts are available but often not used for reasons including knowledge, accessibility, preference and others. We sought to understand Kenyan health providers' and HIV serodiscordant couples' perspectives and experiences with safer conception. METHODS: Between August 2015 and March 2016, we conducted key informant interviews (KIIs) with health providers from public and private HIV care and fertility clinics and in-depth interviews (IDIs) and focus group discussions (FGDs) with HIV serodiscordant couples participating in an open-label study of integrated pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) and antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV prevention (the Partners Demonstration Project). An inductive analytic approach identified a number of themes related to experiences with and perceptions of safer conception strategies. RESULTS: We conducted 20 KIIs with health providers, and 21 IDIs and 4 FGDs with HIV serodiscordant couples. HIV clinic providers frequently discussed timed condomless sex and antiretroviral medications while providers at private fertility care centres were more comfortable recommending medically assisted reproduction. Couples experienced with ART and PrEP reported that they were comfortable using these strategies to reduce HIV risk when attempting pregnancy. Timed condomless sex in conjunction with ART and PrEP was a preferred strategy, often owing to them being available for free in public and research clinics, as well as most widely known; however, couples often held inaccurate knowledge of how to identify days with peak fertility in the upcoming menstrual cycle. CONCLUSIONS: Antiretroviral-based HIV prevention is acceptable and accessible to meet the growing demand for safer conception services in Kenya, since medically assisted interventions are currently cost prohibitive. Cross-disciplinary training for health providers would expand confidence in all prevention options and foster the tailoring of counselling to couples' preferences.

Boundary Negotiating Artifacts in Personal Informatics: Patient-Provider Collaboration with Patient-Generated Data.

Patient-generated data is increasingly common in chronic disease care management. Smartphone applications and wearable sensors help patients more easily collect health information. However, current commercial tools often do not effectively support patients and providers in collaboration surrounding these data. This paper examines patient expectations and current collaboration practices around patient-generated data. We survey 211 patients, interview 18 patients, and re-analyze a dataset of 21 provider interviews. We find that collaboration occurs in every stage of self-tracking and that patients and providers create boundary negotiating artifacts to support the collaboration. Building upon current practices with patient-generated data, we use these theories of patient and provider collaboration to analyze misunderstandings and privacy concerns as well as identify opportunities to better support these collaborations. We reflect on the social nature of patient-provider collaboration to suggest future development of the stage-based model of personal informatics and the theory of boundary negotiating artifacts.

Machine Assisted Translation of Health Materials to Chinese: An Initial Evaluation.

There is an unmet need for Chinese language health materials in the USA. We investigated the use of machine translation (MT) plus human post-editing (PE) to produce Chinese translations of public health materials. We collected 60 documents that had been manually translated from English to traditional Chinese. The English versions were translated to Chinese using MT and assessed for errors and time required to correct via PE. Results suggest poor initial translation may explain the lack of quality translations despite PE.

Machine Translation of Public Health Materials From English to Chinese: A Feasibility Study.

BACKGROUND: Chinese is the second most common language spoken by limited English proficiency individuals in the United States, yet there are few public health materials available in Chinese. Previous studies have indicated that use of machine translation plus postediting by bilingual translators generated quality translations in a lower time and at a lower cost than human translations. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the feasibility of using machine translation (MT) tools (eg, Google Translate) followed by human postediting (PE) to produce quality Chinese translations of public health materials. METHODS: From state and national public health websites, we collected 60 health promotion documents that had been translated from English to Chinese through human translation. The English version of the documents were then translated to Chinese using Google Translate. The MTs were analyzed for translation errors. A subset of the MT documents was postedited by native Chinese speakers with health backgrounds. Postediting time was measured. Postedited versions were then blindly compared against human translations by bilingual native Chinese quality raters. RESULTS: The most common machine translation errors were errors of word sense (40%) and word order (22%). Posteditors corrected the MTs at a rate of approximately 41 characters per minute. Raters, blinded to the source of translation, consistently selected the human translation over the MT+PE. Initial investigation to determine the reasons for the lower quality of MT+PE indicate that poor MT quality, lack of posteditor expertise, and insufficient posteditor instructions can be barriers to producing quality Chinese translations. CONCLUSIONS: Our results revealed problems with using MT tools plus human postediting for translating public health materials from English to Chinese. Additional work is needed to improve MT and to carefully design postediting processes before the MT+PE approach can be used routinely in public health practice for a variety of language pairs.

PHAST: A Collaborative Machine Translation and Post-Editing Tool for Public Health.

This paper describes a novel collaborative machine translation (MT) plus post-editing system called PHAST (Public Health Automatic System for Translation, phastsystem.org), tailored for use in producing multilingual education materials for public health. Its collaborative features highlight a new approach in public health informatics: sharing limited bilingual translation resources via a groupware system. We report here on the design methods and requirements used to develop PHAST and on its evaluation with potential public health users. Our results indicate such a system could be a feasible means of increasing the production of multilingual public health materials by reducing the barriers of time and cost. PHAST's design can serve as a model for other communities interested in assuring the accuracy of MT through shared language expertise.

Streptococcus pneumoniae forms surface-attached communities in the middle ear of experimentally infected chinchillas.

BACKGROUND: Streptococcus pneumoniae (pneumococcus) causes respiratory and systemic infections that are a major public health problem worldwide. It has been postulated that pneumococci persist in vivo in biofilm communities. METHODS: In this study, we analyzed whether pneumococci form biofilms in vivo, and if so, whether biofilms correlated with bacterial persistence. Chinchillas were infected with S. pneumoniae TIGR4 and euthanized at varying times after infection, after which the superior ear bullae were excised and examined by culture and microscopy. RESULTS: Dense material, resembling the biofilms of other otitis media pathogens, was visible in the middle ear as late as 12 days after infection. Scanning electron microscopy revealed bacteria within an electron-dense matrix, similar to pneumococcal biofilms formed in vitro. Viability staining revealed groups of viable diplococci, as well as viable and nonviable host cells, attached to a fibrous matrix that was positive when stained with propidium iodide. Cryosections of biofilms were treated with polyclonal antibodies against the pneumococcal surface components pneumococcal surface protein A family 2, pneumococcal surface protein C, choline-binding protein, and neuraminidase, coupled with appropriate secondary antibody conjugates. Immunofluorescent staining showed the presence of pneumococcal communities within the material recovered from the middle ear chamber. CONCLUSIONS: On the basis of these data, we conclude that pneumococci form biofilms in vivo and that this process may be intertwined with the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps. These findings provide new insights into the potential causes of antibiotic treatment failure and bacterial persistence in chronic pneumococcal otitis media.