Endoscopic assisted insetting of free flaps in anterior skull base reconstruction: A preliminary report of five cases.

INTRODUCTION: Free vascularized tissue may provide a robust reconstruction after anterior skull base surgery. We report our technique and outcomes of the endoscopic inset of free flaps in anterior skull base reconstructions. METHODS: Between 2016 and 2018, endoscopic tumor removal and reconstruction of anterior skull base pathology was performed in five patients aged 20-72 years old (four male, one female). The tumors included three neuroblastomas, a carcinoma, an adenoma, and a melanoma. The median size of the defect was 3.7 × 6.6 cm. Transmaxillary access was gained through the upper sulcus and an anterior and medial maxillectomy. The flap inset was facilitated by the endoscope. The donor vessels were tunneled through the sinus and through the cheek to the facial vessels without the use of the endoscope. RESULTS: In three cases a vastus lateralis flap was used, in one case an adipofascial ALT flap and in one case an adipofascial radial forearm flap. Separation of intracranial and sinonasal spaces was confirmed by radiological and endoscopic examinations. There was no flap failure and one case with partial necrosis. One of the flaps needed to be trimmed as it obliterated the nasal cavity and in one of the cases the flap was repositioned postoperatively. Two cases had infectious complications. The mean follow-up of the patients was 13.8 months. CONCLUSIONS: Endoscopic assisted inset of a free flap in the anterior skull base was feasible in the five cases we present. A dedicated, multidisciplinary approach is mandatory for surgical innovation like this.

Usefulness of a template-based anterolateral thigh flap for reconstruction of head and neck defects.

BACKGROUND: One of the challenges in head and neck reconstruction is to have an adequate understanding of the three-dimensionalities of the defects created after resections due to the high variability of clinical scenarios. Consequently, it is essential to design the flap to match the requirements of the defect in order to facilitate the insetting and to achieve a successful outcome. The anterolateral thigh flap (ALT) is a robust and versatile flap commonly used in head and neck reconstruction. In this study the authors use a hand-made template as a tool to customize ALT flaps and its variations to fit more accurately the different shapes, volume, and components of the resulting defects. The aim of this study is to describe in detail this surgical approach and present the clinical experience in 100 consecutive cases using a template-based ALT flaps in head and neck reconstruction. METHODS: A retrospective review was performed on all microvascular head and neck reconstruction cases between January 2013 and December 2017 in our institution where a template-based ALT flap design was performed. We describe in detail the surgical technique used and present the clinical outcomes. In addition, we analyzed the use of different designs of the ALT flaps including different flap components in relation to the location of the defect. RESULTS: One hundred reconstructions for head and neck defects were performed in 97 patients. Seven types of ALT free flaps were performed: fasciocutaneous (46%), suprafascial (8%), adipofascial (9%), vastus lateralis muscle (3%), composite fasciocutaneous/adipofascial (9%), chimeric flaps (21%), and vascularized nerve grafts (4%). Oropharyngeal and periauricular defects were mostly reconstructed with fasciocutanoues design. In more complex three-dimensional defects such as skull base or midface defects, a chimeric flap was selected. In all cases the used of template facilitated the insetting of the free flap. The total flap loss was 2%. CONCLUSIONS: Customization of ALT flaps using intraoperative templates is a useful method for flap design which facilitates fitting of the flap to a variety of defects in head and neck reconstruction.

Posterior Distraction Using Springs in Syndromic and Multisuture Craniosynostosis: Improving the Technique.

INTRODUCTION: Posterior distraction is the preferred surgical treatment for particularly Apert and Crouzon syndrome in most craniofacial centers, using either external distractors or springs. The authors prefer the use of springs and have adapted their technique to further improve outcomes. METHODS: All patients who were treated with the adapted technique for occipital expansion using springs were included. The most significant adaption that the authors introduced in 2017 is using a bony hinge at the top of the vault instead of at the caudal edge of the occiput. RESULTS: A total of 8 posterior expansions with springs were performed. No complications occurred and the springs were also successfully applied in cases with extremely thin bone. If indicated, a simultaneous foramen magnum decompression was performed and this was easier to combine with a hinge at the top of the vault. CONCLUSIONS: Posterior distraction with springs is a safe and effective procedure and allows a simultaneous foramen magnum decompression. Planning the hinge at the vault allows intracranial volume gain at the site of the posterior skull base.

Optical coherence tomography: a quantitative tool to screen for papilledema in craniosynostosis.

PURPOSE: Our aim was to evaluate if optical coherence tomography (OCT) can be used as an alternative for fundoscopy to screen for increased intracranial pressure (ICP) in children with craniosynostosis METHODS: We performed a prospective cohort study at the Dutch Craniofacial Centre. We included 38 patients with nonsyndromic scaphocephaly and Crouzon's syndrome aged 3-8 years old, in whom we scored complaints suggestive of increased ICP and performed fundoscopy and OCT. Main outcome measures total retinal thickness (TRT) which was measured on 58 OCT scans. RESULTS: Forty-three percent of fundoscopies revealed pathologic changes of the papil in at least one eye. Retinal thickness was increased in patients with an abnormal fundoscopy as compared to patients with a normal papil (TRT p < 0.001). Patients with Crouzon's syndrome had a significantly increased retinal thickness as compared to patients with scaphocephaly (TRT p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The current study demonstrates that OCT in children with craniosynostosis is feasible. It confirms that retinal thickness increases in case of papilledema. Given the quantitative character, OCT has a high potential as an alternative tool to screen for papilledema in craniosynostosis and other pediatric populations.

The Effect of Regional Anaesthesia on Free Flap Survival in Lower Extremity Reconstructions.

Background: The effect of different modalities of anaesthesia in microvascular free flap surgery has been a topic of ongoing debate. Comparative data to study the effect of general anaesthesia and regional anaesthesia in the form of peripheral nerve blocks (PNBs) on lower extremity free flap survival is lacking to date. This study aims to elucidate the effect of regional anaesthesia on flap survival in lower extremity free flap reconstructions. Methods: A retrospective cohort study of all patients who underwent free vascularised flap reconstruction of the lower extremities between 2012 and 2021 at the Amsterdam University Medical Centre (UMC), The Netherlands, and between 2019 and 2021 at the Radboud UMC, Nijmegen, The Netherlands. In this cohort, we analysed partial and total flap failures. Results: In this cohort, 87 patients received a total of 102 microvascular free flap reconstructions of the lower extremity. In 20.5% of these operations, patients received a supplemental PNB. Total flap failure was 23.8% in the regional anaesthesia group compared to 21% in the group with general anaesthesia only (p = 0.779). Operation time was longer for patients with regional anaesthesia (p = 0.057). Length of stay was on average 2 days shorter for patients with supplemental regional anaesthesia (p = 0.716). Discussion: This is the largest cohort comparing flap survival in patients receiving general anaesthesia to general anaesthesia with a PNB in lower extremity reconstructions to date. We cannot attribute a significant beneficial or detrimental effect of regional anaesthesia to flap survival. High failure rates stress the need for future studies. How to cite this article: Koster ITS, den Os MM, Rutten MVH, et al. The Effect of Regional Anaesthesia on Free Flap Survival in Lower Extremity Reconstructions. Strategies Trauma Limb Reconstr 2024;19(1):15-20.

Improving patient care by virtual case discussion between plastic surgeons and residents of Uganda and the Netherlands.

INTRODUCTION: Traditional on-site missions of plastic surgeons from "high-income countries" in "low- and middle-income countries" are often limited in time and lack proper follow-up. Regular digital collaboration could lead to a more impactful and durable exchange of knowledge for plastic surgeons and residents in both settings. AIMS: The aim of this study was to evaluate the satisfaction of the first twelve months of weekly digital meetings, explore advantages/disadvantages, and to provide tools for similar initiatives. METHODS: Weekly meetings started from August 2021. An encrypted digital connection allowed residents and plastic surgeons from Uganda and the Netherlands to discuss cases for educational purposes, where treatment options were considered. After twelve months, a survey was sent to participants from both countries to indicate the meetings' strengths, weaknesses, and possible improvements. RESULTS: A total of 18 participants responded to the questionnaire (ten plastic surgeons, six residents, and two researchers). The strengths of the meetings were the accessibility of the meetings, knowledge exchange and practice for residents' final exams. Possible improvements included having a clear format for patient discussion, a session moderator and better internet connectivity. Moreover, a database to assess the impact of the given intervention on the patient cases by evaluating postoperatively (e.g. three months), could further improve clinical care. CONCLUSIONS: Virtual patient discussions subjectively contributed to medical education at both locations. Improved digital infrastructure and a collaborative database could further maximize learning capacity. Furthermore, digital proctoring is a promising way to establish sustainable collaborations between high- and low-resource countries.

Sleep apnoea in syndromic craniosynostosis occurs independent of hindbrain herniation.

PURPOSE: Hindbrain herniation (HH) is frequently found in syndromic craniosynostosis. It may cause impairment of the respiratory centres and manifest as sleep-disordered breathing. Our aim was to quantify sleep apnoea caused by HH in children with syndromic craniosynostosis. METHODS: Seventy-one children with syndromic and complex craniosynostosis (aged 0-18 years) underwent prospective magnetic resonance imaging and a sleep study. The position of the cerebellar tonsils and respiratory parameters were evaluated and analysed. None of the included patients had undergone previous foramen magnum decompression. RESULTS: HH was present in 35% of the patients and was more frequent in children with Crouzon syndrome (63%) than in other types of craniosynostosis (p = .018). There was a positive association between the position of the cerebellar tonsils and papilledema (p = .002). Sleep studies of children with craniosynostosis and HH were not different from those without HH. Obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome was not more prevalent in children with HH compared to those without HH (p = .12). A cluster analysis using indices of apnoea revealed that three new clusters between which age was significantly different (p = .025). CONCLUSION: Sleep apnoea in syndromic craniosynostosis is not caused by HH. Rather, our evidence suggests that sleep-disordered breathing in craniosynostosis may be caused by brain stem immaturity in young children or upper airway obstruction. Therefore, as long as the child remains asymptomatic, our preferred management of HH is to be conservative and provide regular neurosurgical follow-up.

Is there an effect of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome on oxidative stress and inflammatory parameters in patients with craniofacial anomalies?

The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) exhibits oxidative stress and inflammation in patients who have a congenital, craniofacial anomaly.This prospective, cross-sectional cohort study included ambulant sleep study data to asses OSAS in patients with syndromic craniosynostosis and Treacher Collins syndrome. Laboratory analyses were performed including malondialdehyde, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 6, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein.Forty-eight patients were included; 11 were adults; 37 were children. The patients' body mass indexes were normal, with a median (SD) of 0.7 (-1.82 to 2.48) in children and 20.5 (15.2-29.4) in adults. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome was diagnosed in 23 of 48 patients. It was mild (median obstructive apnea-hypopnea index [oAHI], 2.3; oxygenation-desaturation index [ODI], 0.9) in 16 patients and moderate/severe in 7 patients (median oAHI, 10.8; ODI, 5.0). Neither oxidative stress nor inflammation had a correlation with the oAHI and ODI. Only TNF-α was found significantly higher in both the OSAS and non-OSAS groups compared with the reference values (median, 15.1 pg/mL and 12.3 pg/mL versus 4.05 [0.0-8.1 pg/mL], P < 0.001 and P < 0.001, respectively).Based on our findings we conclude that (mainly mild) OSAS, oxidative stress, as well as high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and interleukin 6 levels are not abnormal in the day time in a population of nonobese patients with a craniofacial anomaly. The increased level of TNF-α cannot be explained by OSAS. Future research should focus on mapping chronobiologic changes for further interpretation of the results.

Less is more? One-stage versus two-stage implant-based breast reconstruction: A systematic review and meta-analysis of comparative studies.

BACKGROUND: Most breast reconstructions are implant-based and can be performed either in a one-stage, direct-to-implant or in a two-stage, expander-implant-based reconstruction. The objective of this systematic review is to compare the safety and patient satisfaction of the two reconstruction approaches. METHODS: A literature search was conducted on 27 September 2022 using various databases. Studies comparing one-stage and two-stage implant reconstructions and reporting the following outcomes were included: patient satisfaction, aesthetics, complications, and/or costs. Reviews, case reports, or series with less than 20 patients and letters or comments were excluded. Comparisons were made between the one-stage reconstruction with and without acellular dermal matrix (ADM) and two-stage implant-based breast reconstruction groups. The data extracted from all articles were analysed using random-effects meta-analyses. RESULTS: Of the 1381 records identified, a total of 33 articles were included, representing 21529 patients. There were no significant differences between the one-stage and two-stage groups, except for the costs. The one-stage operation without ADM had lower costs than the two-stage operation without ADM, although the use of an ADM substantially increased the price of the operation to more than a two-stage reconstruction. DISCUSSION: Equal patient satisfaction, aesthetic outcomes, and complication rates with lower costs justify one-stage breast reconstruction in carefully selected patients. This review shows that there is no evidence-based superior surgical approach. Future research should focus on the costs of the ADM versus an additional stage and patient-reported outcomes.

Strategies Following Free Flap Failure in Lower Extremity Trauma: A Systematic Review.

Background: Free flap reconstructions are an important reconstructive option for soft tissue defects in mangled lower extremities. Microsurgery facilitates soft tissue coverage of defects that otherwise would result in amputation. However, the success rates of traumatic lower extremity free flap reconstructions remain lower than those in other locations. Nevertheless, post-free flap failure salvage strategies have rarely been addressed. Therefore, the current review aims to provide an overview of post-free flap failure strategies in lower extremity trauma and their subsequent outcomes. Methods: A search of Pubmed, Cochrane, and Embase databases was performed on June 9, June 2021 using the following medical subject headings (MeSH) search terms: 'lower extremity', 'leg injuries', 'reconstructive surgical procedures', 'reoperation', 'microsurgery' and 'treatment failure'. This review was conducted in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Partial and total free flap failures after traumatic reconstruction were included. Results: Twenty-eight studies with a total of 102 free flap failures fulfilled the eligibility criteria. Following the total failure, a second free flap is the predominant reconstructive strategy (69%). In comparison to the failure rate of a first free flap (10%), the fate of a second free flap is less favorable with a failure rate of 17%. The amputation rate following flap failure is 12%. The risk of amputation increases between primary and secondary free flap failures. After partial flap loss, the preferred strategy is a split skin graft (50%). Conclusion: To our knowledge, this is the first systematic review on the outcome of salvage strategies after free flap failure in traumatic lower extremity reconstruction. This review provides valuable evidence to take into consideration in the decision-making regarding post-free flap failure strategies.

Near-Infrared Fluorescence with Indocyanine Green to Assess Bone Perfusion: A Systematic Review.

Background: Adequate perfusion of a bone flap is essential for successful reconstruction of osseous defects. Unfortunately, complications related to inadequate bone perfusion are common. Near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging enables intraoperative visualization of perfusion. NIRF has been investigated in reconstructive surgery to aid the surgeon in clinical perioperative assessment of soft tissue perfusion. However, little is known on the beneficial use of NIRF to assess bone perfusion. Therefore, the aim of this review was to search for studies evaluating NIRF to assess bone perfusion. Methods: A systematic review, according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guideline, was performed. Studies up to October 2021 were included. We extracted data regarding the study population, size and design, reported objective fluorescence parameters and the methodology used for fluorescence imaging and processing. Results: Ten articles were included. Studies reported unevenly on the protocol used for NIRF imaging. Five studies reported objective parameters. Absolute and relative perfusion parameters and parameters derived from maximum fluorescence were reported. The clinical significance of these parameters has not been evaluated in humans. Conclusion: The evidence on bone perfusion as measured with NIRF is limited. More clinical studies are required.

Does laparoscopy lower the threshold for the surgical treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease in children?

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether laparoscopic surgery lowers the threshold for surgical intervention, we examined whether the introduction of the laparoscopic technique at our institution in 1997 has resulted in an increase in antireflux surgery in children at our clinic. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The number of annual fundoplications between 1997 and 2008 at a single institution was assessed in children younger than 18 years. The number of fundoplications was compared with the number of pyloromyotomies and appendicectomies per year in the same period of time to prove or exclude a general increase in the referral of children. RESULTS: Since 1997, the proportion of laparoscopic fundoplications increased from 60% in 1997 to 100% in 2008. During this period, 109 laparoscopic fundoplications were performed: 31 in the period from 1997 to 2002 and 78 from 2003 to 2008. Regression analysis shows a significant increase in the number of performed fundoplications (slope: 1.03 ± 0.28, P = 0.0043), whereas both the number of pyloromyotomies and appendicectomies remained stable (slopes: -0.14 ± 0.40, P = 0.73, and -0.75 ± 0.47, P = 0.14, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Since the introduction of minimally invasive surgery at our tertiary referral center in 1997, the number of patients referred for an antireflux operation has increased. This cannot be explained by an increase of referrals from outside the region or a change in the indication for surgery. We conclude that laparoscopy lowers the threshold for the surgical treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease in children.

How should indocyanine green dye angiography be assessed to best predict mastectomy skin flap necrosis? A systematic review.

INTRODUCTION: The incidence of skin flap necrosis after mastectomies is as high as 11-24%. Laser-assisted indocyanine green (ICG) angiography seems to be a promising technique to assess skin flap perfusion. The aim of this systematic review is to assess the current methodology of ICG and its objective outcome measures ability to predict mastectomy skin flap necrosis. METHODS: A PubMed search was conducted on the 31 December 2018 using ((("Fluorescein Angiography"[Mesh]) OR ("Indocyanine Green"[Mesh])) AND "Mastectomy"[Mesh]). This systematic review was performed in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. We included data about the study size, study design, skin flap necrosis, camera details and the objective outcome parameters. RESULTS: Of 51 results, 22 abstracts were considered relevant of which nine were excluded secondarily. A reference check resulted in three extra inclusions. Sixteen papers were reviewed focusing on their methods and our primary endpoint which was the objective outcome measures of ICG. Objective outcome measures were reported in 8 of 16 studies. They mainly include absolute perfusion units and relative perfusion units (RPUs). All studies revealed a substantial decrease in skin necrosis when the ICG was used. The absolute number of units considered to be predictive for necrosis varies greatly; RPUs have been quite well established and are considered to be predictive for necrosis between 15.6% and 41.6%. However, consensus for methods, numbers and parameters is lacking. CONCLUSION: ICG evaluation of skin perfusion is a promising technique to aid in the surgeon's decision-making, and this seems to decrease skin flap necrosis after mastectomy.

The Cutting Edge of Headache Surgery: A Systematic Review on the Value of Extracranial Surgery in the Treatment of Chronic Headache.

BACKGROUND: Migraine is a debilitating neurologic condition, with a large socioeconomic impact. There is a subgroup of patients that does not adequately respond to pharmacologic management and may have underlying neuralgia. Surgical decompression of extracranial sensory nerves has been proposed as an alternative therapy. The aim of this article is to review the evidence for the surgical treatment of neuralgias. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted to study the efficacy of decompression of extracranial sensory nerves as a treatment for neuralgia. Clinical studies were included that studied patients, aged 18 years or older, diagnosed with any definition of headache and were treated with extracranial nerve decompression surgery. Outcome parameters included intensity (on a 10-point scale), duration (in days), and frequency (of headaches per month). RESULTS: Thirty-eight articles were found describing extracranial nerve decompression in patients with headaches. Postoperative decrease in headache intensity ranged from 2 to 8.2, reduction of duration ranged from 0.04 to 1.04 days, and reduction in frequency ranged between 4 and 14.8 headaches per month. Total elimination of symptoms was achieved in 8.3 to 83 percent of cases. A detailed summary of the outcome of single-site decompression is described. Statistical pooling and therefore meta-analysis was not possible, because of articles having the same surgeon and an overlapping patient database. CONCLUSIONS: Nerve decompression surgery is an effective way of treating headaches in a specific population of patients with neuralgia. Although a meta-analysis of the current data was not possible, the extracranial decompression of peripheral head and neck sensory nerves has a high success rate.

The effect of early fusion of the spheno-occipital synchondrosis on midface hypoplasia and obstructive sleep apnea in patients with Crouzon syndrome.

INTRODUCTION: The investigators hypothesized that patients with Crouzon syndrome and premature fusion of the spheno-occipital synchondrosis (SOS) more often have, or have more severe midface hypoplasia and obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). METHODS: A prospective cohort study was performed among patients with Crouzon syndrome to analyze SOS closure, midface hypoplasia represented by the sella-nasion angle (SNA) and OSA. RESULTS: Forty patients were included in whom the OSA-prevalence was 65%. Kaplan Meier analyses suggest a trend towards earlier closure of synchondrosis in patients with OSA (p = 0.066). The mean SNA was 74.7°. There was a positive effect of age on the SNA (p = 0.020). There was no difference in SNA for patients with an open SOS as compared to patients with a closed SOS after correction for age. CONCLUSIONS: The longitudinal data are suggestive of a trend towards earlier fusion of the SOS in patients with Crouzon syndrome and OSA as compared to patients with Crouzon syndrome without OSA. Although the SNA increases with age, our results suggest that this increase in independent closure of the SOS.

Algorithm for the Management of Intracranial Hypertension in Children with Syndromic Craniosynostosis.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of head growth, obstructive sleep apnea, and intracranial hypertension in patients with syndromic or complex craniosynostosis, and to evaluate the authors' standardized treatment protocol for the management of intracranial hypertension in these patients. METHODS: The authors conducted a prospective observational cohort study of patients with syndromic craniosynostosis at a national referral center, treated according to a standardized protocol. Measurements included occipitofrontal head circumference, with growth arrest defined as downward deflection in occipitofrontal head circumference trajectory greater than or equal to a 0.5 SD fall from baseline over 2 years, or lack of change in occipitofrontal head circumference growth curve; sleep studies, with results dichotomized into no/mild versus moderate/severe obstructive sleep apnea; and funduscopy to indicate papilledema, supplemented by optical coherence tomography and/or intracranial pressure monitoring to identify intracranial hypertension. RESULTS: The authors included 62 patients, of whom 21 (33.9 percent) had intracranial hypertension, 39 (62.9 percent) had obstructive sleep apnea, and 20 (32.3 percent) had occipitofrontal head circumference growth arrest during the study. Age at which intracranial hypertension first occurred was 2.0 years (range, 0.4 to 6.0 years). Preoperatively, 13 patients (21.0 percent) had intracranial hypertension, which was associated only with moderate/severe obstructive sleep apnea (p = 0.012). In the first year after surgery, intracranial hypertension was particularly related to occipitofrontal head circumference growth arrest (p = 0.006). Beyond 1 year after surgery, intracranial hypertension was associated with a combination of occipitofrontal head circumference growth arrest (p < 0.001) and moderate/severe obstructive sleep apnea (p = 0.007). CONCLUSIONS: Children with syndromic craniosynostosis are at risk of intracranial hypertension. The major determinant of this after vault expansion is impaired head growth, which may occur at varying ages. The presence of moderate/severe obstructive sleep apnea also significantly increases the risk of intracranial hypertension. CLINICIAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Risk, III.

How does obstructive sleep apnoea evolve in syndromic craniosynostosis? A prospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the course of obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome (OSAS) in children with syndromic craniosynostosis. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: Dutch Craniofacial Centre from January 2007 to January 2012. PATIENTS: A total of 97 children with syndromic craniosynostosis underwent level III sleep study. Patients generally undergo cranial vault remodelling during their first year of life, but OSAS treatment only on indication. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Obstructive apnoea-hypopnoea index, the central apnoea index and haemoglobin oxygenation-desaturation index derived from consecutive sleep studies. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of OSAS in syndromic craniosynostosis was 68% as defined by level III sleep study. Twenty-three patients were treated for OSAS. Longitudinal profiles were computed for 80 untreated patients using 241 sleep studies. A mixed effects model showed higher values for the patients with midface hypoplasia as compared to those without midface hypoplasia (Omnibus likelihood ratio test=7.9). In paired measurements, the obstructive apnoea-hypopnoea index (Z=-3.4) significantly decreased over time, especially in the first years of life (Z=-3.3), but not in patients with midface hypoplasia (Z=-1.5). No patient developed severe OSAS during follow-up if it was not yet diagnosed during the first sleep study. CONCLUSIONS: OSAS is highly prevalent in syndromic craniosynostosis. There is some natural improvement, mainly during the first 3 years of life and least in children with Apert or Crouzon/Pfeiffer syndrome. In the absence of other co-morbid risk factors, it is highly unlikely that if severe OSAS is not present early in life it will develop during childhood. Ongoing clinical surveillance is of great importance and continuous monitoring for the development of other co-morbid risk factors for OSAS should be warranted.

Nocturnal ultrasound measurements of optic nerve sheath diameter correlate with intracranial pressure in children with craniosynostosis.

Children with craniosynostosis are at risk for increased intracranial pressure, and additional possibilities to screen for increased intracranial pressure are required. The authors' aim was to use ultrasound measurements of the optic nerve sheath to understand and express the variability of intracranial pressure in syndromic craniosynostosis. Therefore, five pediatric patients with craniosynostosis underwent invasive 24-hour intracranial pressure monitoring and simultaneous optic nerve sheath measurements. In three patients, the intracranial pressure was abnormal, and during the second half of the night, the optic nerve sheath was increased in all three patients. The optic nerve sheath diameter changes during the night and is as dynamic as the intracranial pressure. To the best of their knowledge, the authors are the first to describe a real-time relationship of the optic nerve sheath with increased intracranial pressure in children.

Are ultrasonography measurements of optic nerve sheath diameter an alternative to funduscopy in children with syndromic craniosynostosis?

OBJECT: Children with syndromic or complex craniosynostosis are evaluated for increased intracranial pressure (ICP) using funduscopy to detect papilledema. However, papilledema is a late sign of increased ICP. Because papilledema might be preceded by an increase in optic nerve sheath (ONS) diameter, the authors conducted a prospective study to establish the validity and applicability of measuring the ONS using ultrasonography. METHODS: From January 2007 to December 2009, 175 bilateral ultrasonography ONS measurements were performed in 128 patients with syndromic or complex craniosynostosis during the daytime. The measurements were correlated with ONS diameter assessed on CT and simultaneous funduscopy, when available. Furthermore, results were compared by using thresholds for ONS diameters on ultrasonography that are available in the literature. RESULTS: The mean ONS diameter on ultrasonography was 3.1 ± 0.5 mm. The CT measurement was significantly correlated with the ultrasonography measurement (r = 0.41, p < 0.001). The mean ONS diameter in 38 eyes with papilledema was 3.3 ± 0.5 mm, compared with 3.1 ± 0.5 mm in the eyes of patients without papilledema (p = 0.039). Relative to the age-related thresholds, the ONS diameter was too large in 11 eyes (3%), particularly in patients with Crouzon syndrome. Compared with funduscopy, ultrasonography sensitivity was 11%, specificity was 97%, and positive and negative predictive values were 40% and 86%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Ultrasonography is a valid and easy way of quantifying the ONS. Although the ONS diameter is larger in children with papilledema, it cannot be used as a daytime screening tool instead of funduscopy. The ONS diameter is possibly a more real-time indicator of ICP.