Effects of M1 and M4 activation on excitatory synaptic transmission in CA1.

Hippocampal networks are particularly susceptible to dysfunction in many neurodegenerative diseases and neuropsychiatric disorders including Alzheimer's disease, Lewy body dementia, and schizophrenia. CA1, a major output region of the hippocampus, receives glutamatergic input from both hippocampal CA3 and entorhinal cortex, via the Schaffer collateral (SC) and temporoammonic (TA) pathways, respectively. SC and TA inputs to CA1 are thought to be differentially involved in the retrieval of previously stored memories versus the encoding of novel information, and switching between these two crucial hippocampal functions is thought to critically depend on acetylcholine (ACh) acting at muscarinic receptors. In this study, we aimed to determine the roles of specific subtypes of muscarinic receptors in mediating the neuromodulatory effects of ACh on glutamatergic synaptic transmission in the SC and TA pathways of CA1. Using selective pharmacological activation of M1 or M4 receptors along with extracellular and intracellular electrophysiology recordings from adult rat hippocampal slices, we demonstrate that activation of M1 receptors increases spontaneous spike rates of neuronal ensembles in CA1 and increases the intrinsic excitability of pyramidal neurons and interneurons. Selective activation of M4 receptors inhibits glutamate release in the SC pathway, while leaving synaptic transmission in the TA pathway comparatively intact. These results suggest specific mechanisms by which M1 and M4 activation may normalize CA1 circuit activity following disruptions of signaling that accompany neurodegenerative dementias or neuropsychiatric disorders. These findings are of particular interest in light of clinical findings that xanomeline, an M1/M4 preferring agonist, was able to improve cognitive and behavioral symptoms in patients with Alzheimer's disease or schizophrenia.

Inositol Phosphate Accumulation in Vivo Provides a Measure of Muscarinic M1 Receptor Activation.

The rationale for using M1 selective muscarinic acetylcholine receptor activators for the treatment of cognitive impairment associated with psychiatric and neurodegenerative disease is well-established in the literature. Here, we investigate measurement of inositol phosphate accumulation, an end point immediately downstream of the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor signaling cascade, as an in vivo biochemical readout for M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor activation. Five brain penetrant M1-subtype selective activators from three structurally distinct chemical series were pharmacologically profiled for functional activity in vitro using recombinant cell calcium mobilization and inositol phosphate assays, and a native tissue hippocampal slice electrophysiology assay, to show that all five compounds presented a positive allosteric modulator agonist profile, within a narrow range of potencies. In vivo characterization using an amphetamine-stimulated locomotor activity behavioral assay and the inositol phosphate accumulation biochemical assay demonstrated that the latter has utility for assessing functional potency of M1 activators. Efficacy measured by inositol phosphate accumulation in mouse striatum compared favorably to efficacy in reversing amphetamine-induced locomotor activity, suggesting that the inositol phosphate accumulation assay has utility for the evaluation of M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor activators in vivo. The benefits of this in vivo biochemical approach include a wide response window, interrogation of specific brain circuit activation, an ability to model responses in the context of brain exposure, an ability to rank order compounds based on in vivo efficacy, and minimization of animal use.

Characterization of a Novel M1 Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor Positive Allosteric Modulator Radioligand, [3H]PT-1284.

Selective activation of the M1 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) via a positive allosteric modulator (PAM) is a new approach for the treatment of the cognitive impairments associated with schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease. Herein, we describe the characterization of an M1 PAM radioligand, 8-((1S,2S)-2-hydroxycyclohexyl)-5-((6-(methyl-t3)pyridin-3-yl)methyl)-8,9-dihydro-7H-pyrrolo[3,4-hour]quinolin-7-one ([(3)H]PT-1284), as a tool for characterizing the M1 allosteric binding site, as well as profiling novel M1 PAMs. 8-((1S,2S)-2-Hydroxycyclohexyl)-5-((6-methylpyridin-3-yl)methyl)-8,9-dihydro-7H-pyrrolo[3,4-hour]quinolin-7-one (PT-1284 ( 1: )) was shown to potentiate acetylcholine (ACh) in an M1 fluorometric imaging plate reader (FLIPR) functional assay (EC50, 36 nM) and carbachol in a hippocampal slice electrophysiology assay (EC50, 165 nM). PT-1284 ( 1: ) also reduced the concentration of ACh required to inhibit [(3)H]N-methylscopolamine ([(3)H]NMS) binding to M1, left-shifting the ACh Ki approximately 19-fold at 10 µM. Saturation analysis of a human M1 mAChR stable cell line showed that [(3)H]PT-1284 bound to M1 mAChR in the presence of 1 mM ACh with Kd, 4.23 nM, and saturable binding capacity (Bmax), 6.38 pmol/mg protein. M1 selective PAMs were shown to inhibit [(3)H]PT-1284 binding in a concentration-responsive manner, whereas M1 allosteric and orthosteric agonists showed weak affinity (>30 µM). A strong positive correlation (R(2) = 0.86) was found to exist between affinity values generated for nineteen M1 PAMs in the [(3)H]PT-1284 binding assay and the EC50 values of these ligands in a FLIPR functional potentiation assay. These data indicate that there is a strong positive correlation between M1 PAM binding affinity and functional activity, and that [(3)H]PT-1284 can serve as a tool for pharmacological investigation of M1 mAChR PAMs.

Design and optimization of selective azaindole amide M1 positive allosteric modulators.

Selective activation of the M1 receptor via a positive allosteric modulator (PAM) is a new approach for the treatment of the cognitive impairments associated with schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease. A novel series of azaindole amides and their key pharmacophore elements are described. The nitrogen of the azaindole core is a key design element as it forms an intramolecular hydrogen bond with the amide N-H thus reinforcing the bioactive conformation predicted by published SAR and our homology model. Representative compound 25 is a potent and selective M1 PAM that has well aligned physicochemical properties, adequate brain penetration and pharmacokinetic (PK) properties, and is active in vivo. These favorable properties indicate that this series possesses suitable qualities for further development and studies.

Using a smartwatch and smartphone to assess early Parkinson's disease in the WATCH-PD study over 12 months.

Digital measures may provide objective, sensitive, real-world measures of disease progression in Parkinson's disease (PD). However, multicenter longitudinal assessments of such measures are few. We recently demonstrated that baseline assessments of gait, tremor, finger tapping, and speech from a commercially available smartwatch, smartphone, and research-grade wearable sensors differed significantly between 82 individuals with early, untreated PD and 50 age-matched controls. Here, we evaluated the longitudinal change in these assessments over 12 months in a multicenter observational study using a generalized additive model, which permitted flexible modeling of at-home data. All measurements were included until participants started medications for PD. Over one year, individuals with early PD experienced significant declines in several measures of gait, an increase in the proportion of day with tremor, modest changes in speech, and few changes in psychomotor function. As measured by the smartwatch, the average (SD) arm swing in-clinic decreased from 25.9 (15.3) degrees at baseline to 19.9 degrees (13.7) at month 12 (P = 0.004). The proportion of awake time an individual with early PD had tremor increased from 19.3% (18.0%) to 25.6% (21.4%; P < 0.001). Activity, as measured by the number of steps taken per day, decreased from 3052 (1306) steps per day to 2331 (2010; P = 0.16), but this analysis was restricted to 10 participants due to the exclusion of those that had started PD medications and lost the data. The change of these digital measures over 12 months was generally larger than the corresponding change in individual items on the Movement Disorder Society-Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale but not greater than the change in the overall scale. Successful implementation of digital measures in future clinical trials will require improvements in study conduct, especially data capture. Nonetheless, gait and tremor measures derived from a commercially available smartwatch and smartphone hold promise for assessing the efficacy of therapeutics in early PD.

Design and Synthesis of Clinical Candidate PF-06852231 (CVL-231): A Brain Penetrant, Selective, Positive Allosteric Modulator of the M4 Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor.

Selective activation of the M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor subtype offers a novel strategy for the treatment of psychosis in multiple neurological disorders. Although the development of traditional muscarinic activators has been stymied due to pan-receptor activation, muscarinic receptor subtype selectivity can be achieved through the utilization of a subtype of a unique allosteric site. A major challenge in capitalizing on this allosteric site to date has been achieving a balance of suitable potency and brain penetration. Herein, we describe the design of a brain penetrant series of M4 selective positive allosteric modulators (PAMs), ultimately culminating in the identification of 21 (PF-06852231, now CVL-231/emraclidine), which is under active clinical development as a novel mechanism and approach for the treatment of schizophrenia.

Real-life ankle submovements and computer mouse use reflect patient-reported function in adult ataxias.

Novel disease-modifying therapies are being evaluated in spinocerebellar ataxias and multiple system atrophy. Clinician-performed disease rating scales are relatively insensitive for measuring disease change over time, resulting in large and long clinical trials. We tested the hypothesis that sensors worn continuously at home during natural behaviour and a web-based computer mouse task performed at home could produce interpretable, meaningful and reliable motor measures for potential use in clinical trials. Thirty-four individuals with degenerative ataxias (spinocerebellar ataxia types 1, 2, 3 and 6 and multiple system atrophy of the cerebellar type) and eight age-matched controls completed the cross-sectional study. Participants wore an ankle and wrist sensor continuously at home for 1 week and completed the Hevelius computer mouse task eight times over 4 weeks. We examined properties of motor primitives called 'submovements' derived from the continuous wearable sensors and properties of computer mouse clicks and trajectories in relationship to patient-reported measures of function (Patient-Reported Outcome Measure of Ataxia) and ataxia rating scales (Scale for the Assessment and Rating of Ataxia and the Brief Ataxia Rating Scale). The test-retest reliability of digital measures and differences between ataxia and control participants were evaluated. Individuals with ataxia had smaller, slower and less powerful ankle submovements during natural behaviour at home. A composite measure based on ankle submovements strongly correlated with ataxia rating scale scores (Pearson's r = 0.82-0.88), strongly correlated with self-reported function (r = 0.81), had high test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.95) and distinguished ataxia and control participants, including preataxic individuals (n = 4) from controls. A composite measure based on computer mouse movements and clicks strongly correlated with ataxia rating scale total (r = 0.86-0.88) and arm scores (r = 0.65-0.75), correlated well with self-reported function (r = 0.72-0.73) and had high test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.99). These data indicate that interpretable, meaningful and highly reliable motor measures can be obtained from continuous measurement of natural movement, particularly at the ankle location, and from computer mouse movements during a simple point-and-click task performed at home. This study supports the use of these two inexpensive and easy-to-use technologies in longitudinal natural history studies in spinocerebellar ataxias and multiple system atrophy of the cerebellar type and shows promise as potential motor outcome measures in interventional trials.

Dendritic sodium channels promote active decorrelation and reduce phase locking to parkinsonian input oscillations in model globus pallidus neurons.

Correlated firing among populations of neurons is present throughout the brain and is often rhythmic in nature, observable as an oscillatory fluctuation in the local field potential. Although rhythmic population activity is believed to be critical for normal function in many brain areas, synchronized neural oscillations are associated with disease states in other cases. In the globus pallidus (GP in rodents, homolog of the primate GPe), pairs of neurons generally have uncorrelated firing in normal animals despite an anatomical organization suggesting that they should receive substantial common input. In contrast, correlated and rhythmic GP firing is observed in animal models of Parkinson's disease (PD). Based in part on these findings, it has been proposed that an important part of basal ganglia function is active decorrelation, whereby redundant information is compressed. Mechanisms that implement active decorrelation, and changes that cause it to fail in PD, are subjects of great interest. Rat GP neurons express fast, transient voltage-dependent sodium channels (NaF channels) in their dendrites, with the expression level being highest near asymmetric synapses. We recently showed that the dendritic NaF density strongly influences the responsiveness of model GP neurons to synchronous excitatory inputs. In the present study, we use rat GP neuron models to show that dendritic NaF channel expression is a potential cellular mechanism of active decorrelation. We further show that model neurons with lower dendritic NaF channel expression have a greater tendency to phase lock with oscillatory synaptic input patterns like those observed in PD.

Phase response curve analysis of a full morphological globus pallidus neuron model reveals distinct perisomatic and dendritic modes of synaptic integration.

Synchronization of globus pallidus (GP) neurons and cortically entrained oscillations between GP and other basal ganglia nuclei are key features of the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease. Phase response curves (PRCs), which tabulate the effects of phasic inputs within a neuron's spike cycle on output spike timing, are efficient tools for predicting the emergence of synchronization in neuronal networks and entrainment to periodic input. In this study we apply physiologically realistic synaptic conductance inputs to a full morphological GP neuron model to determine the phase response properties of the soma and different regions of the dendritic tree. We find that perisomatic excitatory inputs delivered throughout the interspike interval advance the phase of the spontaneous spike cycle yielding a type I PRC. In contrast, we demonstrate that distal dendritic excitatory inputs can either delay or advance the next spike depending on whether they occur early or late in the spike cycle. We find this latter pattern of responses, summarized by a biphasic (type II) PRC, was a consequence of dendritic activation of the small conductance calcium-activated potassium current, SK. We also evaluate the spike-frequency dependence of somatic and dendritic PRC shapes, and we demonstrate the robustness of our results to variations of conductance densities, distributions, and kinetic parameters. We conclude that the distal dendrite of GP neurons embodies a distinct dynamical subsystem that could promote synchronization of pallidal networks to excitatory inputs. These results highlight the need to consider different effects of perisomatic and dendritic inputs in the control of network behavior.

Dendritic sodium channels regulate network integration in globus pallidus neurons: a modeling study.

The globus pallidus (GP) predominantly contains GABAergic projection neurons that occupy a central position in the indirect pathway of the basal ganglia. They have long dendrites that can extend through one-half the diameter of the GP in rats, potentially enabling convergence and interaction between segregated basal ganglia circuits. Because of the length and fine diameter of GP dendrites, however, it is unclear how much influence distal synapses have on spiking activity. Dendritic expression of fast voltage-dependent Na(+) channels (NaF channels) can enhance the importance of distal excitatory synapses by allowing for dendritic spike initiation and by subthreshold boosting of EPSPs. Antibody labeling has demonstrated the presence of NaF channel proteins in GP dendrites, but the quantitative expression density of the channels remains unknown. We built a series of nine GP neuron models that differed only in their dendritic NaF channel expression level to assess the functional impact of this parameter. The models were all similar in their basic electrophysiological features; however, higher expression levels of dendritic NaF channels increased the relative effectiveness of distal inputs for both excitatory and inhibitory synapses, broadening the effective extent of the dendritic tree. Higher dendritic NaF channel expression also made the neurons more resistant to tonic inhibition and highly sensitive to clustered synchronous excitation. The dendritic NaF channel expression pattern may therefore be a critical determinant of convergence for both the striatopallidal and subthalamopallidal projections, while also dictating which spatiotemporal input patterns are most effective at driving GP neuron output.

The use of automated parameter searches to improve ion channel kinetics for neural modeling.

The voltage and time dependence of ion channels can be regulated, notably by phosphorylation, interaction with phospholipids, and binding to auxiliary subunits. Many parameter variation studies have set conductance densities free while leaving kinetic channel properties fixed as the experimental constraints on the latter are usually better than on the former. Because individual cells can tightly regulate their ion channel properties, we suggest that kinetic parameters may be profitably set free during model optimization in order to both improve matches to data and refine kinetic parameters. To this end, we analyzed the parameter optimization of reduced models of three electrophysiologically characterized and morphologically reconstructed globus pallidus neurons. We performed two automated searches with different types of free parameters. First, conductance density parameters were set free. Even the best resulting models exhibited unavoidable problems which were due to limitations in our channel kinetics. We next set channel kinetics free for the optimized density matches and obtained significantly improved model performance. Some kinetic parameters consistently shifted to similar new values in multiple runs across three models, suggesting the possibility for tailored improvements to channel models. These results suggest that optimized channel kinetics can improve model matches to experimental voltage traces, particularly for channels characterized under different experimental conditions than recorded data to be matched by a model. The resulting shifts in channel kinetics from the original template provide valuable guidance for future experimental efforts to determine the detailed kinetics of channel isoforms and possible modulated states in particular types of neurons.

The capabilities and limitations of conductance-based compartmental neuron models with reduced branched or unbranched morphologies and active dendrites.

Conductance-based neuron models are frequently employed to study the dynamics of biological neural networks. For speed and ease of use, these models are often reduced in morphological complexity. Simplified dendritic branching structures may process inputs differently than full branching structures, however, and could thereby fail to reproduce important aspects of biological neural processing. It is not yet well understood which processing capabilities require detailed branching structures. Therefore, we analyzed the processing capabilities of full or partially branched reduced models. These models were created by collapsing the dendritic tree of a full morphological model of a globus pallidus (GP) neuron while preserving its total surface area and electrotonic length, as well as its passive and active parameters. Dendritic trees were either collapsed into single cables (unbranched models) or the full complement of branch points was preserved (branched models). Both reduction strategies allowed us to compare dynamics between all models using the same channel density settings. Full model responses to somatic inputs were generally preserved by both types of reduced model while dendritic input responses could be more closely preserved by branched than unbranched reduced models. However, features strongly influenced by local dendritic input resistance, such as active dendritic sodium spike generation and propagation, could not be accurately reproduced by any reduced model. Based on our analyses, we suggest that there are intrinsic differences in processing capabilities between unbranched and branched models. We also indicate suitable applications for different levels of reduction, including fast searches of full model parameter space.

Channel density distributions explain spiking variability in the globus pallidus: a combined physiology and computer simulation database approach.

Globus pallidus (GP) neurons recorded in brain slices show significant variability in intrinsic electrophysiological properties. To investigate how this variability arises, we manipulated the biophysical properties of GP neurons using computer simulations. Specifically, we created a GP neuron model database with 100,602 models that had varying densities of nine membrane conductances centered on a hand-tuned model that replicated typical physiological data. To test the hypothesis that the experimentally observed variability can be attributed to variations in conductance densities, we compared our model database results to a physiology database of 146 slice recordings. The electrophysiological properties of generated models and recordings were assessed with identical current injection protocols and analyzed with a uniform set of measures, allowing a systematic analysis of the effects of varying voltage-gated and calcium-gated conductance densities on the measured properties and a detailed comparison between models and recordings. Our results indicated that most of the experimental variability could be matched by varying conductance densities, which we confirmed with additional partial block experiments. Further analysis resulted in two key observations: (1) each voltage-gated conductance had effects on multiple measures such as action potential waveform and spontaneous or stimulated spike rates; and (2) the effect of each conductance was highly dependent on the background context of other conductances present. In some cases, such interactions could reverse the effect of the density of one conductance on important excitability measures. This context dependence of conductance density effects is important to understand drug and neuromodulator effects that work by affecting ion channels.

Striatal, Hippocampal, and Cortical Networks Are Differentially Responsive to the M4- and M1-Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptor Mediated Effects of Xanomeline.

Preclinical and clinical data suggest that muscarinic acetylcholine receptor activation may be therapeutically beneficial for the treatment of schizophrenia and Alzheimer's diseases. This is best exemplified by clinical observations with xanomeline, the efficacy of which is thought to be mediated through co-activation of the M1 and M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs). Here we examined the impact of treatment with xanomeline and compared it to the actions of selective M1 and M4 mAChR activators on in vivo intracellular signaling cascades in mice, including 3'-5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation and inositol phosphate-1 (IP1) accumulation in the striatum, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex. We additionally assessed the effects of xanomeline on hippocampal electrophysiological signatures in rats using ex vivo recordings from CA1 (Cornu Ammonis 1) as well as in vivo hippocampal theta. As expected, xanomeline's effects across these readouts were consistent with activation of both M1 and M4 mAChRs; however, differences were observed across different brain regions, suggesting non-uniform activation of these receptor subtypes in the central nervous system. Interestingly, despite having nearly equal in vitro potency at the M1 and the M4 mAChRs, during in vivo assays xanomeline produced M4-like effects at significantly lower brain exposures than those at which M1-like effects were observed. Our results raise the possibility that clinical efficacy observed with xanomeline was driven, in part, through its non-uniform activation of mAChR subtypes in the central nervous system and, at lower doses, through preferential agonism of the M4 mAChR.

Design and Synthesis of γ- and δ-Lactam M1 Positive Allosteric Modulators (PAMs): Convulsion and Cholinergic Toxicity of an M1-Selective PAM with Weak Agonist Activity.

Recent data demonstrated that activation of the muscarinic M1 receptor by a subtype-selective positive allosteric modulator (PAM) contributes to the gastrointestinal (GI) and cardiovascular (CV) cholinergic adverse events (AEs) previously attributed to M2 and M3 activation. These studies were conducted using PAMs that also exhibited allosteric agonist activity, leaving open the possibility that direct activation by allosteric agonism, rather than allosteric modulation, could be responsible for the adverse effects. This article describes the design and synthesis of lactam-derived M1 PAMs that address this hypothesis. The lead molecule from this series, compound 1 (PF-06827443), is a potent, low-clearance, orally bioavailable, and CNS-penetrant M1-selective PAM with minimal agonist activity. Compound 1 was tested in dose escalation studies in rats and dogs and was found to induce cholinergic AEs and convulsion at therapeutic indices similar to previous compounds with more agonist activity. These findings provide preliminary evidence that positive allosteric modulation of M1 is sufficient to elicit cholinergic AEs.

Discovery of the Potent and Selective M1 PAM-Agonist N-[(3R,4S)-3-Hydroxytetrahydro-2H-pyran-4-yl]-5-methyl-4-[4-(1,3-thiazol-4-yl)benzyl]pyridine-2-carboxamide (PF-06767832): Evaluation of Efficacy and Cholinergic Side Effects.

It is hypothesized that selective muscarinic M1 subtype activation could be a strategy to provide cognitive benefits to schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease patients while minimizing the cholinergic side effects observed with nonselective muscarinic orthosteric agonists. Selective activation of M1 with a positive allosteric modulator (PAM) has emerged as a new approach to achieve selective M1 activation. This manuscript describes the development of a series of M1-selective pyridone and pyridine amides and their key pharmacophores. Compound 38 (PF-06767832) is a high quality M1 selective PAM that has well-aligned physicochemical properties, good brain penetration and pharmacokinetic properties. Extensive safety profiling suggested that despite being devoid of mAChR M2/M3 subtype activity, compound 38 still carries gastrointestinal and cardiovascular side effects. These data provide strong evidence that M1 activation contributes to the cholinergic liabilities that were previously attributed to activation of the M2 and M3 receptors.

Optogenetic activation of nigral inhibitory inputs to motor thalamus in the mouse reveals classic inhibition with little potential for rebound activation.

The inhibitory output from the internal pallidum and substantia nigra to the thalamus forms an important link in the transmission of basal ganglia processing to cortex. Two hypotheses consider either inhibition of thalamic activity or thalamic excitation via post-inhibitory rebound burst firing as the functional mode of this link. We used optogenetics to characterize the synaptic properties of nigral input to motor thalamus in adult mouse brain slices, and to determine in what conditions the nigral inhibition of motor thalamus is transmitted via inhibition or rebound firing. Our results are more consistent with graded inhibition of spiking for conditions expected in normal awake animals, because inhibitory potentials from nigral input were generally not sufficient to elicit rebound spikes when the thalamic neurons were actively firing. However, with bursty or fast trains of nigral input low-threshold rebound spike bursts could be triggered for low levels of excitation. This may form the basis of pathological burst generation and transmission in parkinsonian conditions.

Future viable models of psychiatry drug discovery in pharma.

The unmet need for the treatment of disorders of the nervous system is growing, and as highlighted in the media and elsewhere, the results of an aging population will ensure this continues with an upward trajectory. Incredibly, the efforts within industry to identify new drugs to treat these conditions have seemingly disappeared despite the growing need. There has been a run of extraordinary failure in the later stages of the drug discovery process for neurological and psychiatric disorders, which has many causes. We believe, though, that we have to confront this dire situation, both by using learnings from the post hoc analysis of our historical failure, as well as harnessing the bewildering array of new technologies and data now available to us, to ensure we are making the right decisions along the very complicated path of drug discovery to registration.

Database analysis of simulated and recorded electrophysiological datasets with PANDORA's toolbox.

Neuronal recordings and computer simulations produce ever growing amounts of data, impeding conventional analysis methods from keeping pace. Such large datasets can be automatically analyzed by taking advantage of the well-established relational database paradigm. Raw electrophysiology data can be entered into a database by extracting its interesting characteristics (e.g., firing rate). Compared to storing the raw data directly, this database representation is several orders of magnitude higher efficient in storage space and processing time. Using two large electrophysiology recording and simulation datasets, we demonstrate that the database can be queried, transformed and analyzed. This process is relatively simple and easy to learn because it takes place entirely in Matlab, using our database analysis toolbox, PANDORA. It is capable of acquiring data from common recording and simulation platforms and exchanging data with external database engines and other analysis toolboxes, which make analysis simpler and highly interoperable. PANDORA is available to be freely used and modified because it is open-source (http://software.incf.org/software/pandora/home).