Hydration Properties and Interlayer Organization in Synthetic C-S-H.

Water in calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) is one of the key parameters driving the macroscopic behavior of cement materials for which water vapor partial pressure has an impact on Young's modulus and the volumic properties. Several samples of C-S-H with a bulk Ca/Si ratio ranging between 0.6 and 1.6 were characterized to study their dehydration/hydration behavior under water-controlled conditions using29Si NMR, water adsorption volumetry, X-ray diffraction, and Fourier-transform near-infrared diffuse reflectance under various water pressures. Coherent with several previous studies, it was observed that an increase in the Ca/Si ratio is due to the progressive omission of Si bridging tetrahedra, with the resulting charge being compensated for by interlayer Ca, and that water conditioning influences the layer-to-layer distance and the achieved NMR spectral resolution. Water desorption experiments exhibit one step toward low relative pressure, accompanied by a decrease in the layer-to-layer distance. When sufficient energy is provided to the system (T ≥ 40 °C under vacuum) to remove the interlayer water, the shrinkage/swelling is partially reversible in our experimental conditions. A change in layer-to-layer distance of less than 3 Å is measured in the C-S-H between the wet and dried states. When the bridging SiO2 tetrahedra are omitted, interlayer Ca interacts with layer O and water interacts with the cations and potentially with the surfaces. This structural organization is interpreted as a mid-plane monolayer of water in the interlayer space, this latter accounting for about 30% of the volume of C-S-H particles.

Mechanistic and Thermodynamic Insights into Anion Exchange by Green Rust.

Fougerite is a naturally occurring green rust, that is, a layered double hydroxide (LDH) containing iron (Fe). Fougerite was identified in natural settings such as hydromorphic soils. It is one of the few inorganic materials with large anion adsorption capacity that stems from the presence of isomorphic substitutions of Fe2+ by Fe3+ in its layers. The importance of anion adsorption in the interlayer of LDH has often been highlighted, but we are still missing a mechanistic understanding and a thermodynamic framework to predict the anion uptake by green rust. We combined laboratory and in operando synchrotron X-ray diffraction and scattering experiments with geochemical modeling to contribute to filling this gap. We showed that the overall exchange process in green rusts having nanometer and micrometer sizes can be seen as a simple anion exchange mechanism without dissolution-recrystallization or interstratification processes. A thermodynamic model of ion exchange, based on the Rothmund and Kornfeld convention, made it possible to predict the interlayer composition in a large range of conditions. This multiscale characterization can serve as a starting point for the building of robust and mechanistic geochemical models that will allow predicting the role of green rust on the geochemical cycle of ions, including nutrients, in soils.

Selenite Uptake by Ca-Al LDH: A Description of Intercalated Anion Coordination Geometries.

Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) are anion exchangers with a strong potential to scavenge anionic contaminants in aquatic environments. Here, the uptake of selenite (SeO32-) by Ca-Al LDHs was investigated as a function of Se concentration. Thermodynamic modeling of batch sorption isotherms shows that the formation of SeO32--intercalated AFm (hydrated calcium aluminate monosubstituent) phase, AFm-SeO3, is the dominant mechanism controlling the retention of Se at medium loadings. AFm-Cl2 shows much stronger affinity and larger distribution ratio (Rd ∼ 17800 L kg-1) toward SeO32- than AFm-SO4 (Rd ∼ 705 L kg-1). At stoichiometric SeO32- loading for anion exchange, the newly formed AFm-SeO3 phase results in two basal spacing, i.e., 9.93 ± 0.06 Å and ∼11.03 ± 0.03 Å. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectra indicate that the intercalated SeO32- forms inner-sphere complexes with the Ca-Al-O layers. In situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) shows that basal spacing of Ca-Al LDHs have a remarkable linear relationship with the size of hydrated intercalated anions (i.e., Cl-, SO42-, MoO42-, and SeO32-). Contrary to AFm-SeO3 with inner-sphere SeO32- complexes in the interlayer, the phase with hydrogen-bonded inner-sphere complexed SeO32- is kinetically favored but thermodynamically unstable. This work offers new insights about the determination of intercalated anion coordination geometries via XRD analyses.

Evidence of Multiple Sorption Modes in Layered Double Hydroxides Using Mo As Structural Probe.

Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) have been considered as effective phases for the remediation of aquatic environments, to remove anionic contaminants mainly through anion exchange mechanisms. Here, a combination of batch isotherm experiments and X-ray techniques was used to examine molybdate (MoO42-) sorption mechanisms on CaAl LDHs with increasing loadings of molybdate. Advanced modeling of aqueous data shows that the sorption isotherm can be interpreted by three retention mechanisms, including two types of edge sites complexes, interlayer anion exchange, and CaMoO4 precipitation. Meanwhile, Mo geometry evolves from tetrahedral to octahedral on the edge, and back to tetrahedral coordination at higher Mo loadings, indicated by Mo K-edge X-ray absorption spectra. Moreover, an anion exchange process on both CaAl LDHs was followed by in situ time-resolved synchrotron-based X-ray diffraction, remarkably agreeing with the sorption isotherm. This detailed molecular view shows that different uptake mechanisms-edge sorption, interfacial dissolution-reprecipitation-are at play and control anion uptake under environmentally relevant conditions, which is contrast to the classical view of anion exchange as the primary retention mechanism. This work puts all these mechanisms in perspective, offering a new insight into the complex interplay of anion uptake mechanisms by LDH phases, by using changes in Mo geometry as powerful molecular-scale probe.

Modeling the Acid-Base Properties of Montmorillonite Edge Surfaces.

The surface reactivity of clay minerals remains challenging to characterize because of a duality of adsorption surfaces and mechanisms that does not exist in the case of simple oxide surfaces: edge surfaces of clay minerals have a variable proton surface charge arising from hydroxyl functional groups, whereas basal surfaces have a permanent negative charge arising from isomorphic substitutions. Hence, the relationship between surface charge and surface potential on edge surfaces cannot be described using the Gouy-Chapman relation, because of a spillover of negative electrostatic potential from the basal surface onto the edge surface. While surface complexation models can be modified to account for these features, a predictive fit of experimental data was not possible until recently, because of uncertainty regarding the densities and intrinsic pKa values of edge functional groups. Here, we reexamine this problem in light of new knowledge on intrinsic pKa values obtained over the past decade using ab initio molecular dynamics simulations, and we propose a new formalism to describe edge functional groups. Our simulation results yield reasonable predictions of the best available experimental acid-base titration data.

Cryptomelane formation from nanocrystalline vernadite precursor: a high energy X-ray scattering and transmission electron microscopy perspective on reaction mechanisms.

BACKGROUND: Vernadite is a nanocrystalline and turbostratic phyllomanganate which is ubiquitous in the environment. Its layers are built of (MnO6)(8-) octahedra connected through their edges and frequently contain vacancies and  (or) isomorphic substitutions. Both create a layer charge deficit that can exceed 1 valence unit per layer octahedron and thus induces a strong chemical reactivity. In addition, vernadite has a high affinity for many trace elements (e.g., Co, Ni, and Zn) and possesses a redox potential that allows for the oxidation of redox-sensitive elements (e.g., As, Cr, Tl). As a result, vernadite acts as a sink for many trace metal elements. In the environment, vernadite is often found associated with tectomanganates (e.g., todorokite and cryptomelane) of which it is thought to be the precursor. The transformation mechanism is not yet fully understood however and the fate of metals initially contained in vernadite structure during this transformation is still debated. In the present work, the transformation of synthetic vernadite (δ-MnO2) to synthetic cryptomelane under conditions analogous to those prevailing in soils (dry state, room temperature and ambient pressure, in the dark) and over a time scale of ~10 years was monitored using high-energy X-ray scattering (with both Bragg-rod and pair distribution function formalisms) and transmission electron microscopy. RESULTS: Migration of Mn(3+) from layer to interlayer to release strains and their subsequent sorption above newly formed vacancy in a triple-corner sharing configuration initiate the reaction. Reaction proceeds with preferential growth to form needle-like crystals that subsequently aggregate. Finally, the resulting lath-shaped crystals stack, with n × 120° (n = 1 or 2) rotations between crystals. Resulting cryptomelane crystal sizes are ~50-150 nm in the ab plane and ~10-50 nm along c*, that is a tenfold increase compared to fresh samples. CONCLUSION: The presently observed transformation mechanism is analogous to that observed in other studies that used higher temperatures and (or) pressure, and resulting tectomanganate crystals have a number of morphological characteristics similar to natural ones. This pleads for the relevance of the proposed mechanism to environmental conditions.

Phase quantification using deep neural network processing of XRD patterns.

Mineral identification and quantification are key to the understanding and, hence, the capacity to predict material properties. The method of choice for mineral quantification is powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), generally using a Rietveld refinement approach. However, a successful Rietveld refinement requires preliminary identification of the phases that make up the sample. This is generally carried out manually, and this task becomes extremely long or virtually impossible in the case of very large datasets such as those from synchrotron X-ray diffraction computed tomography. To circumvent this issue, this article proposes a novel neural network (NN) method for automating phase identification and quantification. An XRD pattern calculation code was used to generate large datasets of synthetic data that are used to train the NN. This approach offers significant advantages, including the ability to construct databases with a substantial number of XRD patterns and the introduction of extensive variability into these patterns. To enhance the performance of the NN, a specifically designed loss function for proportion inference was employed during the training process, offering improved efficiency and stability compared with traditional functions. The NN, trained exclusively with synthetic data, proved its ability to identify and quantify mineral phases on synthetic and real XRD patterns. Trained NN errors were equal to 0.5% for phase quantification on the synthetic test set, and 6% on the experimental data, in a system containing four phases of contrasting crystal structures (calcite, gibbsite, dolomite and hematite). The proposed method is freely available on GitHub and allows for major advances since it can be applied to any dataset, regardless of the mineral phases present.

Characterization of Nanoparticles in Ethanolic Suspension Using Single Particle Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry: Application for Cementitious Systems.

Single particle inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (spICP-MS) is a well-established technique to characterize the size, particle number concentration (PNC), and elemental composition of engineered nanoparticles (NPs) and colloids in aqueous suspensions. However, a method capable of directly analyzing water-sensitive or highly reactive NPs in alcoholic suspension has not been reported yet. Here, we present a novel spICP-MS method for characterizing the main cement hydration product, i.e., calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) NPs, in ethanolic suspensions, responsible for cement strength. The method viability was tested on a wide range of NP compositions and sizes (i.e., from Au, SiO2, and Fe3O4 NP certified reference materials (CRMs) to synthetic C-S-H phases with known Ca/Si ratios and industrial cement hardening accelerators, X-Seed 100/500). Method validation includes comparisons to nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and transmission/scanning electron microscopy (TEM/SEM). Results show that size distributions from spICP-MS were in good agreement with TEM and NTA for CRMs ≥ 51 nm and the synthetic C-S-H phases. The X-Seed samples showed significant differences in NP sizes depending on the elemental composition, i.e. CaO and SiO2 NPs were bigger than Al2O3 NPs. PNC via spICP-MS was successfully validated with an accuracy of 1 order of magnitude for CRMs and C-S-H phases. The spICP-MS Ca/Si ratios matched known ratios from synthetic C-S-H phases (0.6, 0.8, and 1.0). Overall, our method is applicable for the direct and element-specific quantification of fast nucleation and/or mineral formation processes characterizing NPs (ca. 50-1000 nm) in alcoholic suspensions.

Oxidation State and Structure of Fe in Nontronite: From Oxidizing to Reducing Conditions.

The redox reaction between natural Fe-containing clay minerals and its sorbates is a fundamental process controlling the cycles of many elements such as carbon, nutrients, redox-sensitive metals, and metalloids (e.g., Co, Mn, As, Se), and inorganic as well as organic pollutants in Earth's critical zone. While the structure of natural clay minerals under oxic conditions is well-known, less is known about their behavior under anoxic and reducing conditions, thereby impeding a full understanding of the mechanisms of clay-driven reduction and oxidation (redox) reactions especially under reducing conditions. Here we investigate the structure of a ferruginous natural clay smectite, nontronite, under different redox conditions, and compare several methods for the determination of iron redox states. Iron in nontronite was gradually reduced chemically with the citrate-bicarbonate-dithionite (CBD) method. 57Fe Mössbauer spectrometry, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) spectroscopy including its pre-edge, extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy, and mediated electrochemical oxidation and reduction (MEO/MER) provided consistent Fe(II)/Fe(III) ratios. By combining X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), we show that the long-range structure of nontronite at the highest obtained reduction degree of 44% Fe(II) is not different from that of fully oxidized nontronite except for a slight basal plane dissolution on the external surfaces. The short-range order probed by EXAFS spectroscopy suggests, however, an increasing structural disorder and Fe clustering with increasing reduction of structural Fe.

Influence of soil redox state on mercury sorption and reduction capacity.

We investigated the mechanisms of interactions between divalent aqueous Hg and rock samples originating from an outcropping rock formation, the Albian Tégulines Clay (France, Aube). Two solid samples collected at two different depths (7.7 and 21.2 m depth) in the rock formation were selected since, in situ, they had and were still experiencing contrasting redox conditions, and thus had different mineralogy with regards to the minerals containing redox-sensitive elements, in particular iron. The sample that was the closer to the surface was under oxidizing conditions and contained goethite and siderite, while the deeper one was under reducing conditions and had more siderite, together with pyrite and magnetite. The redox state of the samples was preserved throughout the present study by careful conditioning, preparation, and use them under O2-free conditions. The two samples had similar affinity for Hg, with a retention coefficient (RD) ranging between 102 and 106 mol·kg-1 when the aqueous Hg concentration ranged between 4.4 and 107 ng·L-1 with the lowest concentration for the highest RD. However, the mechanisms of interaction differed. In the oxidized sample, no change in Hg redox state was observed, and the retention was due to reversible adsorption on the mineral phases (including organic matter). In contrast, upon interaction with the deeper and reduced sample, Hg was not only adsorbed on the mineral phases, but part of it was also reduced to dissolve elemental Hg. This reduction was attributed to magnetite and siderite and highlights the influence of mineralogy on the geochemical cycle of Hg.

Thermodynamic and crystallographic model for anion uptake by hydrated calcium aluminate (AFm): an example of molybdenum.

Amongst all cement phases, hydrated calcium aluminate (AFm) plays a major role in the retention of anionic species. Molybdenum (Mo), whose 93Mo isotope is considered a major steel activation product, will be released mainly under the form of MoO42- in a radioactive waste repository. Understanding its fate is of primary importance in a safety analysis of such disposal. This necessitates models that can both predict quantitatively the sorption of Mo by AFm and determine the nature of the sorption process (i.e., reversible adsorption or incorporation). This study investigated the Cl-/MoO42- exchange processes occurring in an AFm initially containing interlayer Cl in alkaline conditions using flow-through experiments. The evolution of the solid phase was characterized using an electron probe microanalyzer and synchrotron high-energy X-ray scattering. All data, together with their quantitative modeling, coherently indicated that Mo replaced Cl in the AFm interlayer. The structure of the interlayer is described with unprecedented atomic-scale detail based on a combination of real- and reciprocal-space analyses of total X-ray scattering data. In addition, modeling of several independent chemical experiments elucidated that Cl-/OH- exchange processes occur together with Cl-/MoO42- exchange. This competitive effect must be considered when determining the Cl-/MoO42- selectivity constant.

Retention of arsenic, chromium and boron on an outcropping clay-rich rock formation (the Tégulines Clay, eastern France).

The retention behavior of three toxic chemicals, As, Cr and B, was investigated for an outcropping rock formation, the Albian Tégulines Clay (France, Aube). At a shallow depth, Tégulines Clay is affected by weathering processes leading to contrasted geochemical conditions with depth. One of the main features of the weathering is the occurrence of a redox transition zone near the surface. Batch sorption experiments of As(V), As(III), Cr(VI) and B were performed on samples collected at two depths representative either of oxidized or reduced mineral assemblages. Batch sorption experiments highlighted a distinct behavior between As, Cr and B oxyanions. Cr(VI) retention behavior was dominated by redox phenomena, notably its reduction to Cr(III). The in-situ redox state of the Tégulines Clay samples has a significant effect on Cr retention. On the contrary, As(V) reduction into As(III) is moderate and its retention slightly affected by the in-situ redox state of the Tégulines Clay. As(V) retention is higher than As(III) retention in agreement with literature data. B retention is strongly related to its natural abundance in the Tégulines clay samples. Distribution coefficient of B corrected from its natural content is expected to be very low for in-situ conditions. Finally, the retention and mobility of these oxyanions were affected by clay mineralogy, natural abundance, and reducing capacity of the Tegulines Clay.

Deciphering mineralogical changes and carbonation development during hydration and ageing of a consolidated ternary blended cement paste.

To understand the main properties of cement, a ubiquitous material, a sound description of its chemistry and mineralogy, including its reactivity in aggressive environments and its mechanical properties, is vital. In particular, the porosity distribution and associated sample carbonation, both of which affect cement's properties and durability, should be quantified accurately, and their kinetics and mechanisms of formation known both in detail and in situ. However, traditional methods of cement mineralogy analysis (e.g. chemical mapping) involve sample preparation (e.g. slicing) that can be destructive and/or expose cement to the atmosphere, leading to preparation artefacts (e.g. dehydration). In addition, the kinetics of mineralogical development during hydration, and associated porosity development, cannot be examined. To circumvent these issues, X-ray diffraction computed tomography (XRD-CT) has been used. This allowed the mineralogy of ternary blended cement composed of clinker, fly ash and blast furnace slag to be deciphered. Consistent with previous results obtained for both powdered samples and dilute systems, it was possible, using a consolidated cement paste (with a water-to-solid ratio akin to that used in civil engineering), to determine that the mineralogy consists of alite (only detected in the in situ hydration experiment), calcite, calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H), ettringite, mullite, portlandite, and an amorphous fraction of unreacted slag and fly ash. Mineralogical evolution during the first hydration steps indicated fast ferrite reactivity. Insights were also gained into how the cement porosity evolves over time and into associated spatially and time-resolved carbonation mechanisms. It was observed that macroporosity developed in less than 30 h of hydration, with pore sizes reaching about 100-150 µm in width. Carbonation was not observed for this time scale, but was found to affect the first 100 µm of cement located around macropores in a sample cured for six months. Regarding this carbonation, the only mineral detected was calcite.

Quantitative X-ray pair distribution function analysis of nanocrystalline calcium silicate hydrates: a contribution to the understanding of cement chemistry.

The structural evolution of nanocrystalline calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) as a function of its calcium to silicon (Ca/Si) ratio has been probed using qualitative and quantitative X-ray atomic pair distribution function analysis of synchrotron X-ray scattering data. Whatever the Ca/Si ratio, the C-S-H structure is similar to that of tobermorite. When the Ca/Si ratio increases from ∼0.6 to ∼1.2, Si wollastonite-like chains progressively depolymerize through preferential omission of Si bridging tetrahedra. When the Ca/Si ratio approaches ∼1.5, nanosheets of portlandite are detected in samples aged for 1 d, while microcrystalline portlandite is detected in samples aged for 1 year. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy imaging shows that the tobermorite-like structure is maintained to Ca/Si > 3.

Structure of nanocrystalline calcium silicate hydrates: insights from X-ray diffraction, synchrotron X-ray absorption and nuclear magnetic resonance.

The structure of nanocrystalline calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) having Ca/Si ratios ranging between 0.57 ± 0.05 and 1.47 ± 0.04 was studied using an electron probe micro-analyser, powder X-ray diffraction, 29Si magic angle spinning NMR, and Fourier-transform infrared and synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopies. All samples can be described as nanocrystalline and defective tobermorite. At low Ca/Si ratio, the Si chains are defect free and the Si Q3 and Q2 environments account, respectively, for up to 40.2 ± 1.5% and 55.6 ± 3.0% of the total Si, with part of the Q3 Si being attributable to remnants of the synthesis reactant. As the Ca/Si ratio increases up to 0.87 ± 0.02, the Si Q3 environment decreases down to 0 and is preferentially replaced by the Q2 environment, which reaches 87.9 ± 2.0%. At higher ratios, Q2 decreases down to 32.0 ± 7.6% for Ca/Si = 1.38 ± 0.03 and is replaced by the Q1 environment, which peaks at 68.1 ± 3.8%. The combination of X-ray diffraction and NMR allowed capturing the depolymerization of Si chains as well as a two-step variation in the layer-to-layer distance. This latter first increases from ∼11.3 Š(for samples having a Ca/Si ratio <∼0.6) up to 12.25 Šat Ca/Si = 0.87 ± 0.02, probably as a result of a weaker layer-to-layer connectivity, and then decreases down to 11 Šwhen the Ca/Si ratio reaches 1.38 ± 0.03. The decrease in layer-to-layer distance results from the incorporation of interlayer Ca that may form a Ca(OH)2-like structure, nanocrystalline and intermixed with C-S-H layers, at high Ca/Si ratios.

Solid-state transformation of nanocrystalline phyllomanganate into tectomanganate: influence of initial layer and interlayer structure.

In surficial environments, the fate of many elements is influenced by their interactions with the phyllomanganate vernadite, a nano-sized and turbostratic variety of birnessite. To advance our understanding of the surface reactivity of vernadite as a function of pH, synthetic vernadite (δ-MnO2) was equilibrated at pH ranging from 3 to 10 and characterized structurally using chemical methods, thermogravimetry and modelling of powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns. With decreasing pH, the number of vacant layer sites increases in the octahedral layers of δ-MnO2 (from 0.14 per layer octahedron at pH 10 to 0.17 at pH 3), whereas the number of layer Mn(3+) is, within errors, equal to 0.12 per layer octahedron over the whole pH range. Vacant layer sites are capped by interlayer Mn(3+) sorbed as triple corner-sharing surface complexes (TC sites). The increasing number of interlayer Mn(3+) with decreasing pH (from 0.075 per layer octahedron at pH 10 to 0.175 at pH 3) results in the decrease of the average Mn oxidation degree (from 3.80 ±â€…0.01 at pH 10 to 3.70 ±â€…0.01 at pH 3) and in the lowering of the Na/Mn ratio (from 27.66 ±â€…0.20 at pH 10 to 6.99 ±â€…0.16 at pH 3). In addition, in-plane unit-cell parameters are negatively correlated to the number of interlayer Mn at TC sites and decrease with decreasing pH (from b = 2.842 Šat pH 10 to b = 2.834 Šat pH 3), layer symmetry being systematically hexagonal with a = b × 3(1/2). Finally, modelling of X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns indicates that crystallite size in the ab plane and along the c* axis decreases with decreasing pH, ranging respectively from 7 nm to 6 nm, and from 1.2 nm to 1.0 nm (pH 10 and 3, respectively). Following their characterization, dry samples were sealed in polystyrene vials, kept in the dark, and re-analysed 4 and 8 years later. With ageing time and despite the dry state, layer Mn(3+) extensively migrates to the interlayer most likely to minimize steric strains resulting from the Jahn-Teller distortion of Mn(3+) octahedra. When the number of interlayer Mn(3+) at TC sites resulting from this migration reaches the maximum value of ∼ 1/3 per layer octahedron, interlayer species from adjacent layers share their coordination sphere, resulting in cryptomelane-like tunnel structure fragments (with a 2  × 2 tunnel size) with a significantly improved layer stacking order.

A novel and easy chemical-clock synthesis of nanocrystalline iron-cobalt bearing layered double hydroxides.

A novel synthesis of cobalt-iron layered double hydroxide (LDH) with interlayer chlorides was investigated. The method consists in mixing concentrated solutions of hexaamminecobalt(III) trichloride with ferrous chloride at room temperature and in anoxic conditions. Four initial Fe/Co atomic ratios have been tried out (0.12, 0.6, 1.2 and 1.8). Neither heating nor addition of alkali was employed for adjusting the pH and precipitating the metal hydroxides. Still, each mixture led to the spontaneous precipitation of a LDH-rich solid having a crystal-chemistry that depended on the initial solution Fe/Co. These LDHs phases were carefully characterized by mean of X-ray diffraction, (57)Fe Mössbauer spectrometry, transmission electron microscopy and chemical analysis (total dissolution and phenanthroline method). Solution Eh and pH were also monitored during the synthesis. Increasing initial Fe/Co ratio impacted the dynamic of the observed stepwise reaction and the composition of the resulting product. Once the two solutions are mixed, a spontaneous and abrupt color change occurs after an induction time which depends on the starting Fe/Co ratio. This makes the overall process acting as a chemical clock. This spontaneous generation of CoFe-LDH arises from the interplay between redox chemistries of iron and cobalt-ammonium complexes.

X-ray diffraction: a powerful tool to probe and understand the structure of nanocrystalline calcium silicate hydrates.

X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns were calculated and compared to literature data with the aim of investigating the crystal structure of nanocrystalline calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H), the main binding phase in hydrated Portland cement pastes. Published XRD patterns from C-S-H of Ca/Si ratios ranging from ~ 0.6 to ~ 1.7 are fully compatible with nanocrystalline and turbostratic tobermorite. Even at a ratio close or slightly higher than that of jennite (Ca/Si = 1.5) this latter mineral, which is required in some models to describe the structure of C-S-H, is not detected in the experimental XRD patterns. The 001 basal reflection from C-S-H, positioned at ~ 13.5 Å when the C-S-H structural Ca/Si ratio is low (< 0.9), shifts towards smaller d values and sharpens with increasing Ca/Si ratio, to reach ~ 11.2 Å when the Ca/Si ratio is higher than 1.5. Calculations indicate that the sharpening of the 001 reflection may be related to a crystallite size along c* (i.e. a mean number of stacked layers) increasing with the C-S-H Ca/Si ratio. Such an increase would contribute to the observed shift of the 001 reflection, but fails to quantitatively explain it. It is proposed that the observed shift could result from interstratification of at least two tobermorite-like layers, one having a high and the other a low Ca/Si ratio with a basal spacing of 11.3 and 14 Å, respectively.

Atmospheric mercury incorporation in soils of an area impacted by a chlor-alkali plant (Grenoble, France): contribution of canopy uptake.

This study focused on the fluxes of mercury (Hg) and mechanisms of incorporation into soils surrounding a chlor-alkali plant suspected to have emitted up to ~600 kg Hg year(-1) for decades into the atmosphere. Comparison of vertical Hg soil profiles with As, Cu, Ni and Zn (which were not emitted by the plant) support Hg enrichment in surface horizons due to atmospheric Hg inputs from the chlor-alkali plant. Based on chemical extractions and elemental correlations, Hg was found to be weakly leachable and bio-available for plants, and most probably strongly bound to organic matter. In contrast, other trace elements were probably associated with phyllosilicates, iron oxides or with primary minerals. Hg stocks in the surface horizon of a forested soil (1255 mg Hg m(-3)) were two-fold higher than in an agricultural soil (636 mg Hg m(-3)) at a similar distance to the plant. The difference was attributed to the interception of atmospheric Hg by the canopy (most likely gaseous elemental Hg and reactive gaseous Hg) and subsequent litterfall incorporation. Some differences in the ability to trap atmospheric Hg were observed between tree species. The characterization of the litter showed an increasing Hg concentration in the plant material proportional to their degradation stage. In agricultural soils, very low Hg concentrations found in corn leaves and grains suggested a limited uptake via both the foliar and root pathways. Thus, the short-term risk of Hg transfer to agricultural crops and higher levels of the trophic chain appeared limited. A possible risk which remains to be evaluated is the possible transfer of Hg-rich particles from the forest topsoil to downstream aquatic ecosystems during rain and snowmelt events.