Dopamine and deep brain stimulation accelerate the neural dynamics of volitional action in Parkinson's disease.

The ability to initiate volitional action is fundamental to human behaviour. Loss of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease is associated with impaired action initiation, also termed akinesia. Both dopamine and subthalamic deep brain stimulation (DBS) can alleviate akinesia, but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. An important question is whether dopamine and DBS facilitate de novo build-up of neural dynamics for motor execution or accelerate existing cortical movement initiation signals through shared modulatory circuit effects. Answering these questions can provide the foundation for new closed-loop neurotherapies with adaptive DBS, but the objectification of neural processing delays prior to performance of volitional action remains a significant challenge. To overcome this challenge, we studied readiness potentials and trained brain signal decoders on invasive neurophysiology signals in 25 DBS patients (12 female) with Parkinson's disease during performance of self-initiated movements. Combined sensorimotor cortex electrocorticography (ECoG) and subthalamic local field potential (LFP) recordings were performed OFF therapy (N = 22), ON dopaminergic medication (N = 18) and ON subthalamic deep brain stimulation (N = 8). This allowed us to compare their therapeutic effects on neural latencies between the earliest cortical representation of movement intention as decoded by linear discriminant analysis classifiers and onset of muscle activation recorded with electromyography (EMG). In the hypodopaminergic OFF state, we observed long latencies between motor intention and motor execution for readiness potentials and machine learning classifications. Both, dopamine and DBS significantly shortened these latencies, hinting towards a shared therapeutic mechanism for alleviation of akinesia. To investigate this further, we analysed directional cortico-subthalamic oscillatory communication with multivariate granger causality. Strikingly, we found that both therapies independently shifted cortico-subthalamic oscillatory information flow from antikinetic beta (13-35 Hz) to prokinetic theta (4-10 Hz) rhythms, which was correlated with latencies in motor execution. Our study reveals a shared brain network modulation pattern of dopamine and DBS that may underlie the acceleration of neural dynamics for augmentation of movement initiation in Parkinson's disease. Instead of producing or increasing preparatory brain signals, both therapies modulate oscillatory communication. These insights provide a link between the pathophysiology of akinesia and its' therapeutic alleviation with oscillatory network changes in other non-motor and motor domains, e.g. related to hyperkinesia or effort and reward perception. In the future, our study may inspire the development of clinical brain computer interfaces based on brain signal decoders to provide temporally precise support for action initiation in patients with brain disorders.

A First Methodological Development and Validation of ReTap: An Open-Source UPDRS Finger Tapping Assessment Tool Based on Accelerometer-Data.

Bradykinesia is a cardinal hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD). Improvement in bradykinesia is an important signature of effective treatment. Finger tapping is commonly used to index bradykinesia, albeit these approaches largely rely on subjective clinical evaluations. Moreover, recently developed automated bradykinesia scoring tools are proprietary and are not suitable for capturing intraday symptom fluctuation. We assessed finger tapping (i.e., Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) item 3.4) in 37 people with Parkinson's disease (PwP) during routine treatment follow ups and analyzed their 350 sessions of 10-s tapping using index finger accelerometry. Herein, we developed and validated ReTap, an open-source tool for the automated prediction of finger tapping scores. ReTap successfully detected tapping blocks in over 94% of cases and extracted clinically relevant kinematic features per tap. Importantly, based on the kinematic features, ReTap predicted expert-rated UPDRS scores significantly better than chance in a hold out validation sample (n = 102). Moreover, ReTap-predicted UPDRS scores correlated positively with expert ratings in over 70% of the individual subjects in the holdout dataset. ReTap has the potential to provide accessible and reliable finger tapping scores, either in the clinic or at home, and may contribute to open-source and detailed analyses of bradykinesia.

Multicenter Validation of Individual Preoperative Motor Outcome Prediction for Deep Brain Stimulation in Parkinson's Disease.

BACKGROUND: Subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation (STN DBS) is an established therapy for Parkinson's disease (PD) patients suffering from motor response fluctuations despite optimal medical treatment, or severe dopaminergic side effects. Despite careful clinical selection and surgical procedures, some patients do not benefit from STN DBS. Preoperative prediction models are suggested to better predict individual motor response after STN DBS. We validate a preregistered model, DBS-PREDICT, in an external multicenter validation cohort. METHODS: DBS-PREDICT considered eleven, solely preoperative, clinical characteristics and applied a logistic regression to differentiate between weak and strong motor responders. Weak motor response was defined as no clinically relevant improvement on the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) II, III, or IV, 1 year after surgery, defined as, respectively, 3, 5, and 3 points or more. Lower UPDRS III and IV scores and higher age at disease onset contributed most to weak response predictions. Individual predictions were compared with actual clinical outcomes. RESULTS: 322 PD patients treated with STN DBS from 6 different centers were included. DBS-PREDICT differentiated between weak and strong motor responders with an area under the receiver operator curve of 0.76 and an accuracy up to 77%. CONCLUSION: Proving generalizability and feasibility of preoperative STN DBS outcome prediction in an external multicenter cohort is an important step in creating clinical impact in DBS with data-driven tools. Future prospective studies are required to overcome several inherent practical and statistical limitations of including clinical decision support systems in DBS care.

Rapid Dynamic Naturalistic Monitoring of Bradykinesia in Parkinson's Disease Using a Wrist-Worn Accelerometer.

Motor fluctuations in Parkinson's disease are characterized by unpredictability in the timing and duration of dopaminergic therapeutic benefits on symptoms, including bradykinesia and rigidity. These fluctuations significantly impair the quality of life of many Parkinson's patients. However, current clinical evaluation tools are not designed for the continuous, naturalistic (real-world) symptom monitoring needed to optimize clinical therapy to treat fluctuations. Although commercially available wearable motor monitoring, used over multiple days, can augment neurological decision making, the feasibility of rapid and dynamic detection of motor fluctuations is unclear. So far, applied wearable monitoring algorithms are trained on group data. In this study, we investigated the influence of individual model training on short timescale classification of naturalistic bradykinesia fluctuations in Parkinson's patients using a single-wrist accelerometer. As part of the Parkinson@Home study protocol, 20 Parkinson patients were recorded with bilateral wrist accelerometers for a one hour OFF medication session and a one hour ON medication session during unconstrained activities in their own homes. Kinematic metrics were extracted from the accelerometer data from the bodyside with the largest unilateral bradykinesia fluctuations across medication states. The kinematic accelerometer features were compared over the 1 h duration of recording, and medication-state classification analyses were performed on 1 min segments of data. Then, we analyzed the influence of individual versus group model training, data window length, and total number of training patients included in group model training, on classification. Statistically significant areas under the curves (AUCs) for medication induced bradykinesia fluctuation classification were seen in 85% of the Parkinson patients at the single minute timescale using the group models. Individually trained models performed at the same level as the group trained models (mean AUC both 0.70, standard deviation respectively 0.18 and 0.10) despite the small individual training dataset. AUCs of the group models improved as the length of the feature windows was increased to 300 s, and with additional training patient datasets. We were able to show that medication-induced fluctuations in bradykinesia can be classified using wrist-worn accelerometry at the time scale of a single minute. Rapid, naturalistic Parkinson motor monitoring has the clinical potential to evaluate dynamic symptomatic and therapeutic fluctuations and help tailor treatments on a fast timescale.

An update on adaptive deep brain stimulation in Parkinson's disease.

Advancing conventional open-loop DBS as a therapy for PD is crucial for overcoming important issues such as the delicate balance between beneficial and adverse effects and limited battery longevity that are currently associated with treatment. Closed-loop or adaptive DBS aims to overcome these limitations by real-time adjustment of stimulation parameters based on continuous feedback input signals that are representative of the patient's clinical state. The focus of this update is to discuss the most recent developments regarding potential input signals and possible stimulation parameter modulation for adaptive DBS in PD. Potential input signals for adaptive DBS include basal ganglia local field potentials, cortical recordings (electrocorticography), wearable sensors, and eHealth and mHealth devices. Furthermore, adaptive DBS can be applied with different approaches of stimulation parameter modulation, the feasibility of which can be adapted depending on specific PD phenotypes. Implementation of technological developments like machine learning show potential in the design of such approaches; however, energy consumption deserves further attention. Furthermore, we discuss future considerations regarding the clinical implementation of adaptive DBS in PD. © 2018 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Serious and reversible levetiracetam-induced psychiatric symptoms after resection of frontal low-grade glioma: two case histories.

Levetiracetam may induce serious behavioral disturbances, especially after surgical resection of frontal lobe low-grade glioma. Two patients, treated with levetiracetam, developed serious psychiatric complications postoperatively which completely resolved after switching to valproate. We aim to create awareness for this serious but reversible adverse effect of levetiracetam in this specific patient category.

Single threshold adaptive deep brain stimulation in Parkinson's disease depends on parameter selection, movement state and controllability of subthalamic beta activity.

BACKGROUND: Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is an invasive treatment option for patients with Parkinson's disease. Recently, adaptive DBS (aDBS) systems have been developed, which adjust stimulation timing and amplitude in real-time. However, it is unknown how changes in parameters, movement states and the controllability of subthalamic beta activity affect aDBS performance. OBJECTIVE: To characterize how parameter choice, movement state and controllability interactively affect the electrophysiological and behavioral response to single threshold aDBS. METHODS: We recorded subthalamic local field potentials in 12 patients with Parkinson's disease receiving single threshold aDBS in the acute post-operative state. We investigated changes in two aDBS parameters: the onset time and the smoothing of real-time beta power. Electrophysiological patterns and motor performance were assessed while patients were at rest and during a simple motor task. We further studied the impact of controllability on aDBS performance by comparing patients with and without beta power modulation during continuous stimulation. RESULTS: Our findings reveal that changes in the onset time control the extent of beta power suppression achievable with single threshold adaptive stimulation during rest. Behavioral data indicate that only specific parameter combinations yield a beneficial effect of single threshold aDBS. During movement, action induced beta power suppression reduces the responsivity of the closed loop algorithm. We further demonstrate that controllability of beta power is a prerequisite for effective parameter dependent modulation of subthalamic beta activity. CONCLUSION: Our results highlight the interaction between single threshold aDBS parameter selection, movement state and controllability in driving subthalamic beta activity and motor performance. By this means, we identify directions for the further development of closed-loop DBS algorithms.

Improving naturalistic neuroscience with patient engagement strategies.

Introduction: The clinical implementation of chronic electrophysiology-driven adaptive deep brain stimulation (DBS) algorithms in movement disorders requires reliable representation of motor and non-motor symptoms in electrophysiological biomarkers, throughout normal life (naturalistic). To achieve this, there is the need for high-resolution and -quality chronic objective and subjective symptom monitoring in parallel to biomarker recordings. To realize these recordings, an active participation and engagement of the investigated patients is necessary. To date, there has been little research into patient engagement strategies for DBS patients or chronic electrophysiological recordings. Concepts and results: We here present our concept and the first results of a patient engagement strategy for a chronic DBS study. After discussing the current state of literature, we present objectives, methodology and consequences of the patient engagement regarding study design, data acquisition, and study infrastructure. Nine patients with Parkinson's disease and their caregivers participated in the meeting, and their input led to changes to our study design. Especially, the patient input helped us designing study-set-up meetings and support structures. Conclusion: We believe that patient engagement increases compliance and study motivation through scientific empowerment of patients. While considering patient opinion on sensors or questionnaire questions may lead to more precise and reliable data acquisition, there was also a high demand for study support and engagement structures. Hence, we recommend the implementation of patient engagement in planning of chronic studies with complex designs, long recording durations or high demand for individual active study participation.

Machine learning prediction of motor response after deep brain stimulation in Parkinson's disease-proof of principle in a retrospective cohort.

INTRODUCTION: Despite careful patient selection for subthalamic nucleus deep brain stimulation (STN DBS), some Parkinson's disease patients show limited improvement of motor disability. Innovative predictive analysing methods hold potential to develop a tool for clinicians that reliably predicts individual postoperative motor response, by only regarding clinical preoperative variables. The main aim of preoperative prediction would be to improve preoperative patient counselling, expectation management, and postoperative patient satisfaction. METHODS: We developed a machine learning logistic regression prediction model which generates probabilities for experiencing weak motor response one year after surgery. The model analyses preoperative variables and is trained on 89 patients using a five-fold cross-validation. Imaging and neurophysiology data are left out intentionally to ensure usability in the preoperative clinical practice. Weak responders (n = 30) were defined as patients who fail to show clinically relevant improvement on Unified Parkinson Disease Rating Scale II, III or IV. RESULTS: The model predicts weak responders with an average area under the curve of the receiver operating characteristic of 0.79 (standard deviation: 0.08), a true positive rate of 0.80 and a false positive rate of 0.24, and a diagnostic accuracy of 78%. The reported influences of individual preoperative variables are useful for clinical interpretation of the model, but cannot been interpreted separately regardless of the other variables in the model. CONCLUSION: The model's diagnostic accuracy confirms the utility of machine learning based motor response prediction based on clinical preoperative variables. After reproduction and validation in a larger and prospective cohort, this prediction model holds potential to support clinicians during preoperative patient counseling.

Monitoring Parkinson's disease symptoms during daily life: a feasibility study.

Parkinson's disease symptoms are most often charted using the MDS-UPDRS. Limitations of this approach include the subjective character of the assessments and a discrepant performance in the clinic compared to the home situation. Continuous monitoring using wearable devices is believed to eventually replace this golden standard, but measurements often lack a parallel ground truth or are only tested in lab settings. To overcome these limitations, this study explores the feasibility of a newly developed Parkinson's disease monitoring system, which aims to measure Parkinson's disease symptoms during daily life by combining wearable sensors with an experience sampling method application. Twenty patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease participated in this study. During a period of two consecutive weeks, participants had to wear three wearable sensors and had to complete questionnaires at seven semi-random moments per day on their mobile phone. Wearable sensors collected objective movement data, and the questionnaires containing questions about amongst others Parkinson's disease symptoms served as parallel ground truth. Results showed that participants wore the wearable sensors during 94% of the instructed timeframe and even beyond. Furthermore, questionnaire completion rates were high (79,1%) and participants evaluated the monitoring system positively. A preliminary analysis showed that sensor data could reliably predict subjectively reported OFF moments. These results show that our Parkinson's disease monitoring system is a feasible method to use in a diverse Parkinson's disease population for at least a period of two weeks. For longer use, the monitoring system may be too intense and wearing comfort needs to be optimized.

Acute Monocular Blindness Due to Orbital Compartment Syndrome Following Pterional Craniotomy.

BACKGROUND: We present a case of orbital compartment syndrome (OCS) leading to monocular irreversible blindness following a pterional craniotomy for clipping of an anterior communicating artery aneurysm. OCS is an uncommon but vision-threatening entity requiring urgent decompression to reduce the risk of permanent visual loss. Iatrogenic orbital roof defects are a common finding following pterional craniotomies. However, complications related to these defects are rarely reported. CASE DESCRIPTION: A 65-year-old female who underwent an anterior communicating artery clipping via a pterional approach 4 days before developed proptosis, ocular movement paresis, and irreversible visual impairment following an orthopedic surgery. Computed tomography images revealed an intraorbital cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) collection, which was evacuated via an acute recraniotomy. The next day, proptosis and intraorbital CSF collection on computed tomography images reoccurred and an oral and maxillofacial surgeon evacuated the collection via a blepharoplasty incision and blunt dissection. In addition, the patient was treated with acetazolamide and an external lumbar CSF drainage during 12 days. Hereafter, the CSF collection did not reoccur. Unfortunately, monocular blindness was persistent. We hypothesize the CSF collection occurred due to the combination of a postoperative orbital roof defect and a temporarily increased intracranial pressure during the orthopedic surgery. CONCLUSION: We plead for more awareness of this severe complication after pterional surgeries and emphasize the importance of 1) strict ophthalmologic examination after pterional craniotomies in case of intracranial pressure increasing events, 2) immediate consultation of an oral and maxillofacial surgeon, and 3) consideration of CSF-draining interventions since symptoms are severely invalidating and irreversible within a couple of hours.