Overgrowth syndromes and pediatric cancers: how many roads lead to IGF2?

Overgrowth syndromes such as Perlman syndrome and associated pediatric cancers, including Wilms tumor, arise through genetic and, in certain instances, also epigenetic changes. In the case of the Beckwith-Wiedemann overgrowth syndrome and in Wilms tumor, increased levels of IGF2 have been shown to be causally related to the disease manifestation. In the previous issue of Genes & Development, Hunter and colleagues (pp. 903-908) investigated the molecular mechanisms by which mutations in the gene encoding the RNA degradation component DIS3L2 lead to Perlman syndrome. By analyzing nephron progenitor cells derived from their newly created Dis3l2 mutant mouse lines, the investigators showed that DIS3L2 loss of function leads to up-regulation of IGF2 independently of the let7 microRNA pathway. In a second study in this issue of Genes & Development, Chen and colleagues (pp. 996-1007) show that microRNA processing gene mutations in Wilms tumor lead to an increase in the levels of transcription factor pleomorphic adenoma gene 1 (PLAG1) that in turn activates IGF2 expression. Thus, augmented IGF2 expression seems to be a common downstream factor in both tissue overgrowth and Wilms tumor through several alternative mechanisms.

Epicardial cell shape and maturation are regulated by Wt1 via transcriptional control of Bmp4.

The epicardium plays a crucial role in embryonic heart development and adult heart repair; however, the molecular events underlying its maturation remain unknown. Wt1, one of the main markers of the embryonic epicardium, is essential for epicardial development and function. Here, we analyse the transcriptomic profile of epicardial-enriched cells at different stages of development and from control and epicardial-specific Wt1 knockout (Wt1KO) mice. Transcriptomic and cell morphology analyses of epicardial cells from epicardial-specific Wt1KO mice revealed a defect in the maturation process of the mutant epicardium, including sustained upregulation of Bmp4 expression and the inability of mutant epicardial cells to transition into a mature squamous phenotype. We identified Bmp4 as a transcriptional target of Wt1, thus providing a molecular basis for the retention of the cuboidal cell shape observed in the Wt1KO epicardium. Accordingly, inhibition of the Bmp4 signalling pathway both ex vivo and in vivo rescued the cuboidal phenotype of the mutant epicardium. Our findings indicate the importance of the cuboidal-to-squamous transition in epicardial maturation, a process regulated by Wt1.

LINking microRNAs, kidney development, and Wilms tumors.

In this issue of Genes & Development, Urbach and colleagues (pp. 971-982) provide compelling data suggesting a role for LIN28 in the pathogenesis of a significant percentage of Wilms tumors. These data extend our insights in the genetics underlying Wilms tumor development and emphasize the importance of stemness and microRNA-mediated processes in the origins of these tumors.

Wilms' tumour 1 (WT1) in development, homeostasis and disease.

The study of genes mutated in human disease often leads to new insights into biology as well as disease mechanisms. One such gene is Wilms' tumour 1 (WT1), which plays multiple roles in development, tissue homeostasis and disease. In this Primer, I summarise how this multifaceted gene functions in various mammalian tissues and organs, including the kidney, gonads, heart and nervous system. This is followed by a discussion of our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which WT1 and its two major isoforms regulate these processes at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels.

Correction: Pedigree- and SNP-Associated Genetics and Recent Environment are the Major Contributors to Anthropometric and Cardiometabolic Trait Variation.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005804.].

Extracardiac septum transversum/proepicardial endothelial cells pattern embryonic coronary arterio-venous connections.

Recent reports suggest that mammalian embryonic coronary endothelium (CoE) originates from the sinus venosus and ventricular endocardium. However, the contribution of extracardiac cells to CoE is thought to be minor and nonsignificant for coronary formation. Using classic (Wt1(Cre)) and previously undescribed (G2-Gata4(Cre)) transgenic mouse models for the study of coronary vascular development, we show that extracardiac septum transversum/proepicardium (ST/PE)-derived endothelial cells are required for the formation of ventricular coronary arterio-venous vascular connections. Our results indicate that at least 20% of embryonic coronary arterial and capillary endothelial cells derive from the ST/PE compartment. Moreover, we show that conditional deletion of the ST/PE lineage-specific Wilms' tumor suppressor gene (Wt1) in the ST/PE of G2-Gata4(Cre) mice and in the endothelium of Tie2(Cre) mice disrupts embryonic coronary transmural patterning, leading to embryonic death. Taken together, our results demonstrate that ST/PE-derived endothelial cells contribute significantly to and are required for proper coronary vascular morphogenesis.

Pedigree- and SNP-Associated Genetics and Recent Environment are the Major Contributors to Anthropometric and Cardiometabolic Trait Variation.

Genome-wide association studies have successfully identified thousands of loci for a range of human complex traits and diseases. The proportion of phenotypic variance explained by significant associations is, however, limited. Given the same dense SNP panels, mixed model analyses capture a greater proportion of phenotypic variance than single SNP analyses but the total is generally still less than the genetic variance estimated from pedigree studies. Combining information from pedigree relationships and SNPs, we examined 16 complex anthropometric and cardiometabolic traits in a Scottish family-based cohort comprising up to 20,000 individuals genotyped for ~520,000 common autosomal SNPs. The inclusion of related individuals provides the opportunity to also estimate the genetic variance associated with pedigree as well as the effects of common family environment. Trait variation was partitioned into SNP-associated and pedigree-associated genetic variation, shared nuclear family environment, shared couple (partner) environment and shared full-sibling environment. Results demonstrate that trait heritabilities vary widely but, on average across traits, SNP-associated and pedigree-associated genetic effects each explain around half the genetic variance. For most traits the recently-shared environment of couples is also significant, accounting for ~11% of the phenotypic variance on average. On the other hand, the environment shared largely in the past by members of a nuclear family or by full-siblings, has a more limited impact. Our findings point to appropriate models to use in future studies as pedigree-associated genetic effects and couple environmental effects have seldom been taken into account in genotype-based analyses. Appropriate description of the trait variation could help understand causes of intra-individual variation and in the detection of contributing loci and environmental factors.

Genome-Wide Meta-Analysis Unravels Interactions between Magnesium Homeostasis and Metabolic Phenotypes.

Magnesium (Mg2+) homeostasis is critical for metabolism. However, the genetic determinants of the renal handling of Mg2+, which is crucial for Mg2+ homeostasis, and the potential influence on metabolic traits in the general population are unknown. We obtained plasma and urine parameters from 9099 individuals from seven cohorts, and conducted a genome-wide meta-analysis of Mg2+ homeostasis. We identified two loci associated with urinary magnesium (uMg), rs3824347 (P=4.4×10-13) near TRPM6, which encodes an epithelial Mg2+ channel, and rs35929 (P=2.1×10-11), a variant of ARL15, which encodes a GTP-binding protein. Together, these loci account for 2.3% of the variation in 24-hour uMg excretion. In human kidney cells, ARL15 regulated TRPM6-mediated currents. In zebrafish, dietary Mg2+ regulated the expression of the highly conserved ARL15 ortholog arl15b, and arl15b knockdown resulted in renal Mg2+ wasting and metabolic disturbances. Finally, ARL15 rs35929 modified the association of uMg with fasting insulin and fat mass in a general population. In conclusion, this combined observational and experimental approach uncovered a gene-environment interaction linking Mg2+ deficiency to insulin resistance and obesity.

WT1 the oncogene: a tale of death and HtrA.

Here, Hartkamp et al. (2010) identify WT1 as a novel bona fide substrate of the HtrA2/Omi mitochondrial protease and show that this reaction modulates WT1 antiapoptotic activity under cytotoxic stress. This supports an oncogenic function for WT1, with implications for novel chemotherapeutic avenues.

Homozygous loss-of-function variants in European cosmopolitan and isolate populations.

Homozygous loss of function (HLOF) variants provide a valuable window on gene function in humans, as well as an inventory of the human genes that are not essential for survival and reproduction. All humans carry at least a few HLOF variants, but the exact number of inactivated genes that can be tolerated is currently unknown­as are the phenotypic effects of losing function for most human genes. Here, we make use of 1432 whole exome sequences from five European populations to expand the catalogue of known human HLOF mutations; after stringent filtering of variants in our dataset, we identify a total of 173 HLOF mutations, 76 (44%) of which have not been observed previously. We find that population isolates are particularly well suited to surveys of novel HLOF genes because individuals in such populations carry extensive runs of homozygosity, which we show are enriched for novel, rare HLOF variants. Further, we make use of extensive phenotypic data to show that most HLOFs, ascertained in population-based samples, appear to have little detectable effect on the phenotype. On the contrary, we document several genes directly implicated in disease that seem to tolerate HLOF variants. Overall HLOF genes are enriched for olfactory receptor function and are expressed in testes more often than expected, consistent with reduced purifying selection and incipient pseudogenisation.

Loci associated with N-glycosylation of human immunoglobulin G show pleiotropy with autoimmune diseases and haematological cancers.

Glycosylation of immunoglobulin G (IgG) influences IgG effector function by modulating binding to Fc receptors. To identify genetic loci associated with IgG glycosylation, we quantitated N-linked IgG glycans using two approaches. After isolating IgG from human plasma, we performed 77 quantitative measurements of N-glycosylation using ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) in 2,247 individuals from four European discovery populations. In parallel, we measured IgG N-glycans using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry (MS) in a replication cohort of 1,848 Europeans. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association study (GWAS) results identified 9 genome-wide significant loci (P<2.27 × 10(-9)) in the discovery analysis and two of the same loci (B4GALT1 and MGAT3) in the replication cohort. Four loci contained genes encoding glycosyltransferases (ST6GAL1, B4GALT1, FUT8, and MGAT3), while the remaining 5 contained genes that have not been previously implicated in protein glycosylation (IKZF1, IL6ST-ANKRD55, ABCF2-SMARCD3, SUV420H1, and SMARCB1-DERL3). However, most of them have been strongly associated with autoimmune and inflammatory conditions (e.g., systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, diabetes type 1, multiple sclerosis, Graves' disease, celiac disease, nodular sclerosis) and/or haematological cancers (acute lymphoblastic leukaemia, Hodgkin lymphoma, and multiple myeloma). Follow-up functional experiments in haplodeficient Ikzf1 knock-out mice showed the same general pattern of changes in IgG glycosylation as identified in the meta-analysis. As IKZF1 was associated with multiple IgG N-glycan traits, we explored biomarker potential of affected N-glycans in 101 cases with SLE and 183 matched controls and demonstrated substantial discriminative power in a ROC-curve analysis (area under the curve = 0.842). Our study shows that it is possible to identify new loci that control glycosylation of a single plasma protein using GWAS. The results may also provide an explanation for the reported pleiotropy and antagonistic effects of loci involved in autoimmune diseases and haematological cancer.

WT1 regulates the expression of inhibitory chemokines during heart development.

The embryonic epicardium is an important source of cardiovascular precursor cells and paracrine factors that are required for adequate heart formation. Signaling pathways regulated by WT1 that promote heart development have started to be described; however, there is little information on signaling pathways regulated by WT1 that could act in a negative manner. Transcriptome analysis of Wt1KO epicardial cells reveals an unexpected role for WT1 in repressing the expression of interferon-regulated genes that could be involved in a negative regulation of heart morphogenesis. Here, we showed that WT1 is required to repress the expression of the chemokines Ccl5 and Cxcl10 in epicardial cells. We observed an inverse correlation of Wt1 and the expression of Cxcl10 and Ccl5 during epicardium development. Chemokine receptor analyses of hearts from Wt1(gfp/+) mice demonstrate the differential expression of their chemokine receptors in GFP(+) epicardial enriched cells and GFP(-) cells. Functional assays demonstrate that CXCL10 and CCL5 inhibit epicardial cells migration and the proliferation of cardiomyocytes respectively. WT1 regulates the expression levels of Cxcl10 and Ccl5 in epicardial cells directly and indirectly through increasing the levels of IRF7. As epicardial cell reactivation after a myocardial damage is linked with WT1 expression, the present work has potential implications in adult heart repair.

Genetic influences on plasma CFH and CFHR1 concentrations and their role in susceptibility to age-related macular degeneration.

It is a longstanding puzzle why non-coding variants in the complement factor H (CFH) gene are more strongly associated with age-related macular degeneration (AMD) than functional coding variants that directly influence the alternative complement pathway. The situation is complicated by tight genetic associations across the region, including the adjacent CFH-related genes CFHR3 and CFHR1, which may themselves influence the alternative complement pathway and are contained within a common deletion (CNP147) which is associated with protection against AMD. It is unclear whether this association is mediated through a protective effect of low plasma CFHR1 concentrations, high plasma CFH or both. We examined the triangular relationships of CFH/CFHR3/CFHR1 genotype, plasma CFH or CFHR1 concentrations and AMD susceptibility in combined case-control (1256 cases, 1020 controls) and cross-sectional population (n = 1004) studies and carried out genome-wide association studies of plasma CFH and CFHR1 concentrations. A non-coding CFH SNP (rs6677604) and the CNP147 deletion were strongly correlated both with each other and with plasma CFH and CFHR1 concentrations. The plasma CFH-raising rs6677604 allele and raised plasma CFH concentration were each associated with AMD protection. In contrast, the protective association of the CNP147 deletion with AMD was not mediated by low plasma CFHR1, since AMD-free controls showed increased plasma CFHR1 compared with cases, but it may be mediated by the association of CNP147 with raised plasma CFH concentration. The results are most consistent with a regulatory locus within a 32 kb region of the CFH gene, with a major effect on plasma CFH concentration and AMD susceptibility.

The role of Wt1 in regulating mesenchyme in cancer, development, and tissue homeostasis.

From both the fundamental and clinical perspectives, there is growing interest in mesenchymal cells and the mechanisms that regulate the two-way switch between mesenchymal and epithelial states. Here, we review recent findings showing that the Wilms' tumor gene (Wt1) is a key regulator of mesenchyme maintenance and the mesenchyme to epithelial balance in the development of certain mesodermal organs. We summarize recent experiments demonstrating, unexpectedly, that Wt1 is also essential for the integrity or function of multiple adult tissues, mainly, we argue, through regulating mesenchymal cells. We also discuss growing evidence that implicates Wt1 in tissue repair and regeneration. Drawing on these findings, we highlight the similarities between Wt1-expressing cells in different tissues. We believe that future studies aimed at elucidating the mechanisms underlying the functions of Wt1 in adult cells will reveal key cell types, pathways, and molecules regulating adult tissue homeostasis and repair.

Exome sequencing to detect rare variants associated with general cognitive ability: a pilot study.

Variation in human cognitive ability is of consequence to a large number of health and social outcomes and is substantially heritable. Genetic linkage, genome-wide association, and copy number variant studies have investigated the contribution of genetic variation to individual differences in normal cognitive ability, but little research has considered the role of rare genetic variants. Exome sequencing studies have already met with success in discovering novel trait-gene associations for other complex traits. Here, we use exome sequencing to investigate the effects of rare variants on general cognitive ability. Unrelated Scottish individuals were selected for high scores on a general component of intelligence (g). The frequency of rare genetic variants (in n = 146) was compared with those from Scottish controls (total n = 486) who scored in the lower to middle range of the g distribution or on a proxy measure of g. Biological pathway analysis highlighted enrichment of the mitochondrial inner membrane component and apical part of cell gene ontology terms. Global burden analysis showed a greater total number of rare variants carried by high g cases versus controls, which is inconsistent with a mutation load hypothesis whereby mutations negatively affect g. The general finding of greater non-synonymous (vs. synonymous) variant effects is in line with evolutionary hypotheses for g. Given that this first sequencing study of high g was small, promising results were found, suggesting that the study of rare variants in larger samples would be worthwhile.

Genome-wide association study identifies novel loci associated with circulating phospho- and sphingolipid concentrations.

Phospho- and sphingolipids are crucial cellular and intracellular compounds. These lipids are required for active transport, a number of enzymatic processes, membrane formation, and cell signalling. Disruption of their metabolism leads to several diseases, with diverse neurological, psychiatric, and metabolic consequences. A large number of phospholipid and sphingolipid species can be detected and measured in human plasma. We conducted a meta-analysis of five European family-based genome-wide association studies (N = 4034) on plasma levels of 24 sphingomyelins (SPM), 9 ceramides (CER), 57 phosphatidylcholines (PC), 20 lysophosphatidylcholines (LPC), 27 phosphatidylethanolamines (PE), and 16 PE-based plasmalogens (PLPE), as well as their proportions in each major class. This effort yielded 25 genome-wide significant loci for phospholipids (smallest P-value = 9.88×10(-204)) and 10 loci for sphingolipids (smallest P-value = 3.10×10(-57)). After a correction for multiple comparisons (P-value<2.2×10(-9)), we observed four novel loci significantly associated with phospholipids (PAQR9, AGPAT1, PKD2L1, PDXDC1) and two with sphingolipids (PLD2 and APOE) explaining up to 3.1% of the variance. Further analysis of the top findings with respect to within class molar proportions uncovered three additional loci for phospholipids (PNLIPRP2, PCDH20, and ABDH3) suggesting their involvement in either fatty acid elongation/saturation processes or fatty acid specific turnover mechanisms. Among those, 14 loci (KCNH7, AGPAT1, PNLIPRP2, SYT9, FADS1-2-3, DLG2, APOA1, ELOVL2, CDK17, LIPC, PDXDC1, PLD2, LASS4, and APOE) mapped into the glycerophospholipid and 12 loci (ILKAP, ITGA9, AGPAT1, FADS1-2-3, APOA1, PCDH20, LIPC, PDXDC1, SGPP1, APOE, LASS4, and PLD2) to the sphingolipid pathways. In large meta-analyses, associations between FADS1-2-3 and carotid intima media thickness, AGPAT1 and type 2 diabetes, and APOA1 and coronary artery disease were observed. In conclusion, our study identified nine novel phospho- and sphingolipid loci, substantially increasing our knowledge of the genetic basis for these traits.

Common variants in UMOD associate with urinary uromodulin levels: a meta-analysis.

Uromodulin is expressed exclusively in the thick ascending limb and is the most abundant protein excreted in normal urine. Variants in UMOD, which encodes uromodulin, are associated with renal function, and urinary uromodulin levels may be a biomarker for kidney disease. However, the genetic factors regulating uromodulin excretion are unknown. We conducted a meta-analysis of urinary uromodulin levels to identify associated common genetic variants in the general population. We included 10,884 individuals of European descent from three genetic isolates and three urban cohorts. Each study measured uromodulin indexed to creatinine and conducted linear regression analysis of approximately 2.5 million single nucleotide polymorphisms using an additive model. We also tested whether variants in genes expressed in the thick ascending limb associate with uromodulin levels. rs12917707, located near UMOD and previously associated with renal function and CKD, had the strongest association with urinary uromodulin levels (P<0.001). In all cohorts, carriers of a G allele of this variant had higher uromodulin levels than noncarriers did (geometric means 10.24, 14.05, and 17.67 µg/g creatinine for zero, one, or two copies of the G allele). rs12446492 in the adjacent gene PDILT (protein disulfide isomerase-like, testis expressed) also reached genome-wide significance (P<0.001). Regarding genes expressed in the thick ascending limb, variants in KCNJ1, SORL1, and CAB39 associated with urinary uromodulin levels. These data indicate that common variants in the UMOD promoter region may influence urinary uromodulin levels. They also provide insights into uromodulin biology and the association of UMOD variants with renal function.

Wt1 controls retinoic acid signalling in embryonic epicardium through transcriptional activation of Raldh2.

Epicardial-derived signals are key regulators of cardiac embryonic development. An important part of these signals is known to relate to a retinoic acid (RA) receptor-dependent mechanism. RA is a potent morphogen synthesised by Raldh enzymes, Raldh2 being the predominant one in mesodermal tissues. Despite the importance of epicardial retinoid signalling in the heart, the molecular mechanisms controlling cardiac Raldh2 transcription remain unknown. In the current study, we show that Wt1-null epicardial cells display decreased expression of Raldh2 both in vivo and in vitro. Using a RA-responsive reporter, we have confirmed that Wt1-null epicardial cells actually show reduced synthesis of RA. We also demonstrate that Raldh2 is a direct transcriptional target of Wt1 in epicardial cells. A secondary objective of this study was to identify the status of RA-related receptors previously reported to be critical to epicardial biology (PDGFRα,ß; RXRα). PDGFRα and PDGFRß mRNA and protein levels are downregulated in the absence of Wt1, but only Pdgfra expression is rescued by the addition of RA to Wt1-null epicardial cells. RXRα mRNA levels are not affected in Wt1-null epicardial cells. Taken together, our results indicate that Wt1 critically regulates epicardial RA signalling via direct activation of the Raldh2 gene, and identify a role for Wt1 in the regulation of morphogen receptors involved in the proliferation, migration, and differentiation of epicardial and epicardially-derived cells (EPDC).

Molecular genetic contributions to socioeconomic status and intelligence.

Education, socioeconomic status, and intelligence are commonly used as predictors of health outcomes, social environment, and mortality. Education and socioeconomic status are typically viewed as environmental variables although both correlate with intelligence, which has a substantial genetic basis. Using data from 6815 unrelated subjects from the Generation Scotland study, we examined the genetic contributions to these variables and their genetic correlations. Subjects underwent genome-wide testing for common single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). DNA-derived heritability estimates and genetic correlations were calculated using the 'Genome-wide Complex Trait Analyses' (GCTA) procedures. 21% of the variation in education, 18% of the variation in socioeconomic status, and 29% of the variation in general cognitive ability was explained by variation in common SNPs (SEs ~ 5%). The SNP-based genetic correlations of education and socioeconomic status with general intelligence were 0.95 (SE 0.13) and 0.26 (0.16), respectively. There are genetic contributions to intelligence and education with near-complete overlap between common additive SNP effects on these traits (genetic correlation ~ 1). Genetic influences on socioeconomic status are also associated with the genetic foundations of intelligence. The results are also compatible with substantial environmental contributions to socioeconomic status.

Esrrg functions in early branch generation of the ureteric bud and is essential for normal development of the renal papilla.

Congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUTs) are common disorders of human development affecting the renal parechyma, renal pelvis, ureter, bladder and urethra; they show evidence of shared genetic aetiology, although the molecular basis of this remains unknown in the majority of cases. Breakpoint mapping of a de novo, apparently balanced, reciprocal translocation associated with bilateral renal agenesis has implicated the gene encoding the nuclear steroid hormone receptor ESRRG as a candidate gene for CAKUT. Here we show that the Esrrg protein is detected throughout early ureteric ducts as cytoplasmic/sub-membranous staining; with nuclear localization seen in developing nephrons. In 14.5-16.5 dpc (days post-conception) mouse embryos, Esrrg localizes to the subset of ductal tissue within the kidney, liver and lung. The renal ductal expression becomes localized to renal papilla by 18.5 dpc. Perturbation of function was performed in embryonic mouse kidney culture using pooled siRNA to induce knock-down and a specific small-molecule agonist to induce aberrant activation of Esrrg. Both resulted in severe abnormality of early branching events of the ureteric duct. Mouse embryos with a targeted inactivation of Esrrg on both alleles (Esrrg(-/-)) showed agenesis of the renal papilla but normal development of the cortex and remaining medulla. Taken together, these results suggest that Esrrg is required for early branching events of the ureteric duct that occur prior to the onset of nephrogenesis. These findings confirm ESRRG as a strong candidate gene for CAKUT.