Novel Facet of an Old Dietary Molecule? Direct Influence of Caffeine on Glucose and Biogenic Amine Handling by Human Adipocytes.

Caffeine is a plant alkaloid present in food and beverages consumed worldwide. It has high lipid solubility with recognized actions in the central nervous system and in peripheral tissues, notably the adipose depots. However, the literature is scant regarding caffeine's influence on adipocyte functions other than lipolysis, such as glucose incorporation into lipids (lipogenesis) and amine oxidation. The objective of this study was to explore the direct effects of caffeine and of isobutylmethylxanthine (IBMX) on these adipocyte functions. Glucose transport into fat cells freshly isolated from mice, rats, or humans was monitored by determining [3H]-2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) uptake, while the incorporation of radiolabeled glucose into cell lipids was used as an index of lipogenic activity. Oxidation of benzylamine by primary amine oxidase (PrAO) was inhibited by increasing doses of caffeine in human adipose tissue preparations with an inhibition constant (Ki) in the millimolar range. Caffeine inhibited basal and insulin-stimulated glucose transport as well as lipogenesis in rodent adipose cells. The antilipogenic action of caffeine was also observed in adipocytes from mice genetically invalidated for PrAO activity, indicating that PrAO activity was not required for lipogenesis inhibition. These caffeine inhibitory properties were extended to human adipocytes: relative to basal 2-DG uptake, set at 1.0 ± 0.2 for 6 individuals, 0.1 mM caffeine tended to reduce uptake to 0.83 ± 0.08. Insulin increased uptake by 3.86 ± 1.11 fold when tested alone at 100 nM, and by 3.21 ± 0.80 when combined with caffeine. Our results reinforce the recommendation of caffeine's potential in the treatment or prevention of obesity complications.

Influence of deep eutectic solvents on redox biocatalysis involving alcohol dehydrogenases.

Redox biocatalysis plays an increasingly important role in modern organic synthesis. The recent integration of novel media such as deep eutectic solvents (DESs) has significantly impacted this field of chemical biology. Alcohol dehydrogenases (ADHs) are important biocatalysts where their unique specificity is used for enantioselective synthesis. This review explores aspects of redox biocatalysis in the presence of DES both with whole cells and with isolated ADHs. In both cases, the presence of DES has a significant influence on the outcome of reactions albeit via different mechanisms. For whole cells, DES was shown to be a useful tool to direct product formation or configuration - a process of solvent engineering. Whole cells can tolerate DES as media components for the solubilization of hydrophobic substrates. In some cases, DES in the growth medium altered the enantioselectivity of whole cell transformations by solvent control. For isolated enzymes, on the other hand, the presence of DES promotes substrate solubility as well as enhancing enzyme stability and activity. DES can be employed as a smart solvent or smart cosubstrate particularly for cofactor regeneration purposes. From the literatures examined, it is suggested that DES based on choline chloride (ChCl) such as ChCl:Glycerol (Gly), ChCl:Glucose (Glu), and ChCl:1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD) are useful starting points for ADH-based redox biocatalysis. However, each specific reaction will require optimisation due to the influence of several factors on biocatalysis in DES. These include solvent composition, enzyme source, temperature, pH and ionic strength as well as the substrates and products under investigation.

Occupational noise exposure of nightclub bar employees in Ireland.

Due to the transposition of the EU Directive 2003/10/EC into Irish Law, the entertainment sector was obligated to comply with the requirements of the Safety, Health and Welfare at Work (General Application) Regulations 2007, Chapter 1 Part 5: Control of Noise at Work since February 2008. Compliance with the Noise Regulations was examined in 9 nightclubs in Ireland. The typical daily noise exposure of 19 bar employees was measured using 2 logging dosimeters and a Type 1 fixed position sound level meter. Physical site inspections identified nightclub noise control measures. Interviews and questionnaires were used to assess the managers and employees awareness of the noise legislation. The average bar employee daily noise exposure (L(EX, 8h)) was 92 dBA, almost 4 times more than the accepted legal limit. None of the venues examined were fully compliant with the requirements of the 2007 Noise Regulations, and awareness of this legislation was limited.

Influence of cultivation conditions on the production of a thermostable extracellular lipase from Amycolatopsis mediterranei DSM 43304.

Among several lipase-producing actinomycete strains screened, Amycolatopsis mediterranei DSM 43304 was found to produce a thermostable, extracellular lipase. Culture conditions and nutrient source modification studies involving carbon sources, nitrogen sources, incubation temperature and medium pH were carried out. Lipase activity of 1.37 +/- 0.103 IU/ml of culture medium was obtained in 96 h at 28 degrees C and pH 7.5 using linseed oil and fructose as carbon sources and a combination of phytone peptone and yeast extract (5:1) as nitrogen sources. Under optimal culture conditions, the lipase activity was enhanced 12-fold with a twofold increase in lipase specific activity. The lipase showed maximum activity at 60 degrees C and pH 8.0. The enzyme was stable between pH 5.0 and 9.0 and temperatures up to 60 degrees C. Lipase activity was significantly enhanced by Fe(3+) and strongly inhibited by Hg(2+). Li(+), Mg(2+) and PMSF significantly reduced lipase activity, whereas other metal ions and effectors had no significant effect at 0.01 M concentration. A. mediterranei DSM 43304 lipase exhibited remarkable stability in the presence of a wide range of organic solvents at 25% (v/v) concentration for 24 h. These features render this novel lipase attractive for potential biotechnological applications in organic synthesis reactions.

Methylxanthines Inhibit Primary Amine Oxidase and Monoamine Oxidase Activities of Human Adipose Tissue.

Background: Methylxanthines including caffeine and theobromine are widely consumed compounds and were recently shown to interact with bovine copper-containing amine oxidase. To the best of our knowledge, no direct demonstration of any interplay between these phytochemicals and human primary amine oxidase (PrAO) has been reported to date. We took advantage of the coexistence of PrAO and monoamine oxidase (MAO) activities in human subcutaneous adipose tissue (hScAT) to test the interaction between several methylxanthines and these enzymes, which are involved in many key pathophysiological processes. Methods: Benzylamine, methylamine, and tyramine were used as substrates for PrAO and MAO in homogenates of subcutaneous adipose depots obtained from overweight women undergoing plastic surgery. Methylxanthines were tested as substrates or inhibitors by fluorimetric determination of hydrogen peroxide, an end-product of amine oxidation. Results: Semicarbazide-sensitive PrAO activity was inhibited by theobromine, caffeine, and isobutylmethylxanthine (IBMX) while theophylline, paraxanthine, and 7-methylxanthine had little effect. Theobromine inhibited PrAO activity by 54% at 2.5 mM. Overall, the relationship between methylxanthine structure and the degree of inhibition was similar to that seen with bovine PrAO, although higher concentrations (mM) were required for inhibition. Theobromine also inhibited oxidation of tyramine by MAO, at the limits of its solubility in a DMSO vehicle. At doses higher than 12 % v/v, DMSO impaired MAO activity. MAO was also inhibited by millimolar doses of IBMX, caffeine and by other methylxanthines to a lesser extent. Conclusions: This preclinical study extrapolates previous findings with bovine PrAO to human tissues. Given that PrAO is a potential target for anti-inflammatory drugs, it indicates that alongside phosphodiesterase inhibition and adenosine receptor antagonism, PrAO and MAO inhibition could contribute to the health benefits of methylxanthines, especially their anti-inflammatory effects.

Theobromine and related methylxanthines as inhibitors of Primary Amine Oxidase.

Methylxanthines are among the most widely consumed drugs in the world and evidence of their health benefits has been growing in recent years. Primary Amine Oxidase (PrAO) has been recognized as a therapeutic target for the amelioration of inflammatory, vascular, and neurodegenerative diseases. Previous work in our laboratories showed that caffeine inhibited Bovine PrAO with a Ki of 1.0 mM using benzylamine as substrate. This study aimed to extend our previous work and explore the possibility that related methylxanthines might influence PrAO activity. While paraxanthine, theophylline, and 7-methylxanthine had little effect on PrAO, theobromine was a noncompetitive inhibitor with a Ki of 276 ± 44 µM. The specific structural elements of methylxanthines that are required for inhibition allow us to suggest that their binding site on PrAO may be a target for therapeutics. The health benefits associated with dietary methylxanthine consumption could involve PrAO inhibition. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Inhibition of PrAO by methylxanthines may be significant in conferring health benefits. The design of PrAO inhibitors based on the structural motifs identified in this study (N-methylation at specific locations) is indicated. Existing therapeutics based on a core xanthine structure can be evaluated for their effects on PrAO. PrAO inhibition must be considered as a potential mediator of the beneficial health effects of some methylxanthines. If inhibition in human tissues is comparable to, or greater than, that found in these studies it points to an important role for these compounds in human health.

Aldo-keto reductase from Helicobacter pylori--role in adaptation to growth at acid pH.

Pyridine-linked oxidoreductase enzymes of Helicobacter pylori have been implicated in the pathogenesis of gastric disease. Previous studies in this laboratory examined a cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase that was capable of detoxifying a range of aromatic aldehydes. In the present work, we have extended these studies to identify and characterize an aldoketo reductase (AKR) enzyme present in H. pylori. The gene encoding this AKR was identified in the sequenced strain of H. pylori, 26695. The gene, referred to as HpAKR, was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli as a His-tag fusion protein, and purified using nickel chelate chromatography. The gene product (HpAKR) has been assigned to the AKR13C1 family, although it differs in specificity from the two other known members of this family. The enzyme is a monomer with a molecular mass of approximately 39 kDa on SDS/PAGE. It reduces a range of aromatic aldehyde substrates with high catalytic efficiency, and exhibits dual cofactor specificity for both NADPH and NADH. HpAKR can function over a broad pH range (pH 4-9), and has a pH optimum of 5.5. It is inhibited by sodium valproate. Its substrate specificity complements that of the cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase activity in H. pylori, giving the organism the capacity to reduce a wide range of aldehydes. Generation of an HpAKR isogenic mutant of H. pylori demonstrated that HpAKR is required for growth under acidic conditions, suggesting an important role for this enzyme in adaptation to growth in the gastric mucosa. This AKR is a member of a hitherto little-studied class.

Characterization of cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase of Helicobacter pylori. An aldehyde dismutating enzyme.

Cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenases (CAD; 1.1.1.195) catalyse the reversible conversion of p-hydroxycinnamaldehydes to their corresponding alcohols, leading to the biosynthesis of lignin in plants. Outside of plants their role is less defined. The gene for cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase from Helicobacter pylori (HpCAD) was cloned in Escherichia coli and the recombinant enzyme characterized for substrate specificity. The enzyme is a monomer of 42.5 kDa found predominantly in the cytosol of the bacterium. It is specific for NADP(H) as cofactor and has a broad substrate specificity for alcohol and aldehyde substrates. Its substrate specificity is similar to the well-characterized plant enzymes. High substrate inhibition was observed and a mechanism of competitive inhibition proposed. The enzyme was found to be capable of catalysing the dismutation of benzaldehyde to benzyl alcohol and benzoic acid. This dismutation reaction has not been shown previously for this class of alcohol dehydrogenase and provides the bacterium with a means of reducing aldehyde concentration within the cell.

New inhibitors of the Kvß2 subunit from mammalian Kv1 potassium channels.

The role of the redox state of Kvß subunits in the modulation of Kv1 potassium channels has been well documented over the past few years. It has been suggested that a molecule that binds to or inhibits the aldo-keto reductase activity of Kvß might affect the modulation of channel properties. Previous studies of possible modulators of channel activity have shown that cortisone and some related compounds are able to physically dissociate the channel components by binding to a site at the interface between α and ß subunits. Herein, we describe some new inhibitors of rat brain Kvß2, identified using an assay based on multiple substrate turnover. This approach allows one to focus on molecules that specifically block NADPH oxidation. These studies showed that, at 0.5mM, 3,4-dihydroxphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) was an inhibitor of Kvß2 turnover yielding a ∼ 40-50% reduction in the aldehyde reductase activity of this subunit. Other significant inhibitors include the bioflavinoid, rutin and the polyphenol resveratrol; some of the known cardioprotective effects of these molecules may be attributable to Kv1 channel modulation. Cortisone or catechol caused moderate inhibition of Kvß2 turnover, and the aldo-keto reductases inhibitor valproate had an even smaller effect. Despite the importance of the Kv1 channels in a number of disease states, there have been few Kvß2 inhibitors reported. While the ones identified in this study are only effective at high concentrations, they could serve as tools to decipher the role of Kvß2 in vivo and, eventually, inform the development of novel therapeutics.

A short chain NAD(H)-dependent alcohol dehydrogenase (HpSCADH) from Helicobacter pylori: a role in growth under neutral and acidic conditions.

Toxic aldehydes produced by alcohol dehydrogenases have been implicated in the pathogenesis of Helicobacter pylori-related damage to the gastric mucosa. Despite this, the enzymes that might be responsible for producing such aldehydes have not been fully described. It was, therefore, of considerable interest to characterize the alcohol oxidizing enzymes in this pathogen. Previous work in this laboratory characterized two such H. pylori enzymes that had broad specificity for a range of aromatic alcohol substrates. However, an enzyme with specificity for aliphatic alcohols is likely to be required in order that H. pylori can metabolize the wide range of substrates encountered in the gastric mucosa. In this study we describe HpSCADH, an alcohol dehydrogenase from H. pylori 26695 with broad specificity for aliphatic alcohols. HpSCADH was classified in the cD1e subfamily of classical short chain alcohol dehydrogenases. The enzyme was a monomer of approximately 29kDa with a preference for NAD(+) as cofactor. Pyrazole was found to be a competitive inhibitor of HpSCADH. The physiological role of this enzyme was explored by construction of an HpSCADH isogenic mutant. At pH 7.0 the mutant showed reduced growth which became more pronounced when the pH was lowered to 5.0. When pyrazole was added to wild type H. pylori cells it caused growth profiles to be reduced to match those of the isogenic mutant suggesting that HpSCADH inhibition alone was responsible for growth impairment. Taken together, the data relating to the alcohol metabolizing enzymes of this pathogen indicate that they play an important role in H. pylori growth and adaptation to acidic environments. The therapeutic potential of targeting H. pylori alcohol dehydrogenases is discussed.

Purification and properties of Amycolatopsis mediterranei DSM 43304 lipase and its potential in flavour ester synthesis.

An extracellular thermostable lipase from Amycolatopsis mediterranei DSM 43304 has been purified to homogeneity using ammonium sulphate precipitation followed by anion exchange chromatography and hydrophobic interaction chromatography. This protocol resulted in a 398-fold purification with 36% final recovery. The purified A. mediterranei DSM 43304 lipase (AML) has an apparent molecular mass of 33 kDa. The N-terminal sequence, AANPYERGPDPTTASIEATR, showed highest similarity to a lipase from Streptomyces exfoliatus. The values of K(m)(app) and V(max)(app) for p-nitrophenyl palmitate (p-NPP) at the optimal temperature (60°C) and pH (8.0) were 0.099±0.010 mM and 2.53±0.06 mmol/min mg, respectively. The purified AML displayed significant activity towards a range of short and long chain triglyceride substrates and p-nitrophenyl esters. Hydrolysis of glycerol ester bonds occurred non-specifically. The purified AML displayed significant stability in the presence of organic solvents (40%, v/v) and catalyzed the synthesis of the flavour ester isoamyl acetate in free and immobilized states.

Substrate profiling and aldehyde dismutase activity of the Kvß2 subunit of the mammalian Kv1 potassium channel.

Voltage-dependent potassium channels (Kv) are involved in various cellular signalling processes by governing the membrane potential of excitable cells. The cytosolic face of these α subunit-containing channels is associated with ß subunits that can modulate channel responses. Surprisingly, the ß subunit of the mammalian Kv1 channels, Kvß2, has a high level of sequence homology with the aldo-keto reductase (AKR) superfamily of proteins. Recent studies have shown that Kvß2 can catalyze the reduction of aldehydes and, most significantly, that channel function is modulated when Kvß2-bound NADPH is concomitantly oxidized. As a result, the redox chemistry of this subunit is crucial to understanding its role in K(+) channel modulation. The present study has extended knowledge of the substrate profile of this subunit using a single turnover fluorimetric assay. Kvß2 was found to catalyse the reduction of aromatic aldehyde substrates such as 2, 3 and 4-nitrobenzaldehydes, 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, pyridine 2-aldehyde and benzaldehyde. The presence of an electron withdrawing group at the position para to the aldehyde in aromatic compounds facilitated reduction. Aliphatic aldehydes proved to be poor substrates. We devised a simple HPLC-based assay to identify Kvß2 reaction products. Using this assay we showed, for the first time, that Kvß2 can catalyze a slow aldehyde dismutation reaction using 4-nitrobenzaldehyde as substrate and have identified the products of this reaction. The ability of Kvß2 to carry out both an aldehyde reduction and a dismutation reaction is discussed in the light of current thinking on the role of redox chemistry in channel modulation.

Alanine aminotransferase of Trypanosoma brucei--a key role in proline metabolism in procyclic life forms.

African trypanosomes possess high levels of alanine aminotransferase (EC 2.6.1.2), although the function of their activity remains enigmatic, especially in slender bloodstream forms where the metabolism of ketoacids does not occur. Therefore, the gene for alanine aminotransferase enzyme in Trypanosoma brucei (TbAAT) was characterized and its function assessed using a combination of RNA interference and gene knockout approaches. Surprisingly, as much as 95% or more of the activity appears to be unnecessary for growth of either bloodstream or procyclic forms respiring on glucose. A combination of RNA interference and NMR spectroscopy revealed an important role for the activity in procyclic forms respiring on proline. Under these conditions, the major end product of proline metabolism is alanine, and a reduction in TbAAT activity led to a proportionate decrease in the amount of alanine excreted along with an increase in the doubling time of the cells. These results provide evidence of a role for alanine aminotransferase in the metabolism of proline in African trypanosomes by linking glutamate produced by the initial oxidative steps of the pathway with pyruvate produced by the final oxidative step of the pathway. This step appears to be essential when proline is the primary carbon source, which is likely to be the physiological situation in the tsetse fly vector.

Simultaneous modelling of the thermal degradation kinetics of pectin methylesterase in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and carrot (Daucus carota L.) extracts: analysis of seasonal variation and tissue type.

The thermal degradation kinetics of pectin methylesterase (PME) from carrot and lettuce were studied. Fresh extracts were exposed to temperatures from 55 to 70 degrees C until the enzyme was inactivated. A model based on the presence of two forms of the enzyme, one active and one non-active, is proposed. The natural variability of the PME activity was taken into the model in the form of normally distributed random effects. The common model parameters obtained (cleavage constant (0.0395+/-0.0062 s(-1)), degradation constant (0.556+/-0.112 s(-1)), cleavage energy of activation (469+/-23 kJ mol(-1)) and degradation energy of activation (488+/-18 kJ mol(-1))) show that the PME degradation kinetics of the two vegetables can be explained with a single set of parameters.

Effect of heat shock on browning-related enzymes in minimally processed iceberg lettuce and crude extracts.

The effects of heat shock on PPO and POD activity in minimally processed Iceberg lettuce was examined during storage (10 days). The results were compared with the effect of temperature on crude extracts of these enzymes (in vitro analysis). Fresh-cut lettuce washed at 50 degrees C showed significantly lower PPO and POD activity throughout storage than lettuce washed at 4 degrees C and 25 degrees C. These results were consistent with a sensory analysis in which the panellists found the lowest browning scores in those samples treated at 50 degrees C. When PPO and POD were analysed in vitro, the samples treated at 50 degrees C showed a rapid loss of POD activity and a similar but slower loss of PPO activity in all tissues, while incubation at 4 degrees C and 25 degrees C showed no significant loss of activity. While heat shock did not lead to significant loss of activity it did repress the synthesis of PPO and POD during storage.