Income determines the impact of cash transfers on HIV/AIDS: cohort study of 22.7 million Brazilians.

Living with extremely low-income is an important risk factor for HIV/AIDS and can be mitigated by conditional cash transfers. Using a cohort of 22.7 million low-income individuals during 9 years, we evaluated the effects of the world's largest conditional cash transfer, the Programa Bolsa Família, on HIV/AIDS-related outcomes. Exposure to Programa Bolsa Família was associated with reduced AIDS incidence by 41% (RR:0.59; 95%CI:0.57-0.61), mortality by 39% (RR:0.61; 95%CI:0.57-0.64), and case fatality rates by 25% (RR:0.75; 95%CI:0.66-0.85) in the cohort, and Programa Bolsa Família effects were considerably stronger among individuals of extremely low-income [reduction of 55% for incidence (RR:0.45, 95% CI:0.42-0.47), 54% mortality (RR:0.46, 95% CI:0.42-0.49), and 37% case-fatality (RR:0.63, 95% CI:0.51 -0.76)], decreasing gradually until having no effect in individuals with higher incomes. Similar effects were observed on HIV notification. Programa Bolsa Família impact was also stronger among women and adolescents. Several sensitivity and triangulation analyses demonstrated the robustness of the results. Conditional cash transfers can significantly reduce AIDS morbidity and mortality in extremely vulnerable populations and should be considered an essential intervention to achieve AIDS-related sustainable development goals by 2030.

Tuberculin reactivity in a population of schoolchildren with high BCG vaccination coverage / Reactividad a la tuberculina en una población escolar con amplia cobertura de vacunación con la BCG

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the influence of BCG vaccination or revaccination on tuberculin skin test reactivity, in order to guide the correct interpretation of this test in a setting of high neonatal BCG vaccination coverage and an increasing BCG revaccination coverage at school age. METHODS: We conducted tuberculin skin testing and BCG scar reading in 1148 children aged 7-14 years old in the city of Salvador, Bahia, Brazil. We measured the positive effect of the presence of one or two BCG scars on the proportion of tuberculin skin test results above different cut-off levels (induration sizes of > 5 mm, > 10 mm, and > 15 mm) and also using several ranges of induration size (0, 1-4, 5-9, 10-14, and > 15 mm). We also measured the effects that age, gender, and the school where the child was enrolled had on these proportions. RESULTS: The proportion of tuberculin results > 10 mm was 14.2 percent (95 percent confidence interval (CI) = 8.0 percent-20.3 percent) for children with no BCG scar, 21.3 percent (95 percent CI = 18.5 percent-24.1 percent) for children with one BCG scar, and 45.0 percent (95 percent CI = 32.0 percent-58.0 percent) for children with two BCG scars. There was evidence for an increasing positive effect of the presence of one and two BCG scars on the proportion of results > 5 mm and > 10 mm. Similarly, there was evidence for an increasing positive effect of the presence of one and two scars on the proportion of tuberculin skin test results in the ranges of 5-9 mm and of 10-14 mm. The BCG scar effect on the proportion of results > 5 mm and > 10 mm did not vary with age. There was no evidence for BCG effect on the results > 15 mm. CONCLUSIONS: In Brazilian schoolchildren, BCG-induced tuberculin reactivity is indistinguishable, for results under 15 mm, from reactivity induced by Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. BCG revaccination at school age increases the degree of BCG-induced tuberculin reactivity found among schoolchildren. This information should be taken into account in tuberculin skin test surveys intended to estimate M. tuberculosis prevalence or to assess transmission patterns as well as in tuberculin skin testing of individuals used as an auxiliary tool in diagnosing tuberculosis. Taking this information into consideration is especially important when there is increasing BCG revaccination coverage

Objetivo. Evaluar la influencia de la vacunación o revacunación con BCG sobre la prueba de reactividad a la tuberculina, con el fin de ayudar a la correcta interpretación de esta prueba en lugares con una amplia cobertura neonatal con la vacuna BCG y una revacunación en edad escolar cada vez más frecuente. Métodos. Se realizaron la prueba cutánea de la tuberculina y la lectura de la cicatriz de la BCG a 1 148 niños de 7 a 14 años de edad de Salvador, Bahía, Brasil. Se evaluó si la presencia de una o dos cicatrices de BCG influía en los resultados de la prueba cutánea de la tuberculina utilizando diferentes puntos de corte (induración ³ 5 mm, ³ 10 mm y ³ 15 mm), y agrupando la induración según su diámetro (0, de 1 a 4 mm, de 5 a 9 mm, de 10 a 14 mm y ³ 15 mm). También se evaluó si la edad, el sexo o la escuela del niño influyeron sobre los resultados de esta prueba. Resultados. La induración cutánea provocada por la prueba de la tuberculina resultó ³ 10 mm en 14,2% de los casos (intervalo de confianza de 95% [IC 95%]: 8,0 a 20,3%) en niños sin cicatriz de BCG; 21,3% (IC 95%: 18,5 a 24,1%) en niños con una cicatriz de BCG; y 45,0% (IC 95%: 32,0 a 58,0%) en niños con dos cicatrices de BCG. Se evidenció que la presencia de una o dos cicatrices de BCG aumentó la proporción de resultados ³ 5 mm y ³ 10 mm. Este efecto también se evidenció en la proporción de resultados de las pruebas cutáneas de la tuberculina de 5 a 9 mm y de 10 a 14 mm de diámetro. El efecto de las cicatrices de BCG sobre la proporción de resultados ³ 5 mm y ³ 10 mm no varió con la edad. No se hallaron indicios de que la vacunación previa con BCG influyera cuando el diámetro resultó ³ 15 mm. Conclusiones. En los escolares brasileños, la reactividad tuberculínica inducida por la vacunación con BCG < 15 mm no puede distinguirse de la reactividad causada por la infección por Mycobacterium tuberculosis. La revacunación durante la edad escolar aumenta la reactividad tuberculínica provocada por la vacunación inicial. Estos resultados deben tomarse en consideración al utilizar la prueba cutánea de la tuberculina para estimar la prevalencia de M. tuberculosis o determinar los patrones de transmisión, así como al emplear esta prueba como herramienta auxiliar en el diagnóstico de la tuberculosis. Estos resultados son de especial importancia frente a la creciente ampliación de la cobertura de la revacunación con BCG.