Financial barriers to primary health care in Aotearoa New Zealand.

BACKGROUND: In Aotearoa New Zealand, co-payments to see a general practitioner (GP, family doctor) or collect a prescription are payable by virtually all adults. OBJECTIVE: To examine the extent to which these user co-payments are a barrier to accessing health care, focussing on inequities for indigenous Maori. METHODS: Pooled data from sequential waves (years) of the New Zealand Health Survey, 2011/12 to 2018/19 were analysed. Outcomes were self-reported cost barriers to seeing a GP or collecting a prescription in the previous year. Logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios (ORs) of barriers to care for Maori compared with non-Maori, sequentially adjusting for additional explanatory variables. RESULTS: Pooled data included 107,231 people, 22,292 (21%) were Maori. Across all years, 22% of Maori (13% non-Maori) experienced a cost barrier to seeing a GP, and 14% of Maori (5% non-Maori) reported a cost barrier to collecting a prescription. The age- and wave-adjusted OR comparing Maori/non-Maori was 1.71 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.61, 1.81) for the cost barrier to primary care and 2.97 (95% CI: 2.75, 3.20) for the cost barrier to collecting prescriptions. Sociodemographics accounted for about half the inequity for both outcomes; in a fully adjusted model, age, sex, low income, and poorer underlying health were determinants of both outcomes, and deprivation was additionally associated with the cost barrier to collecting a prescription but not to seeing a GP. CONCLUSIONS: Maori experience considerable inequity in access to primary health care; evidence supports an urgent need for change to system funding to eliminate financial barriers to care.

The enrolment gap: who is not enrolling with primary health organizations in Aotearoa New Zealand and what are the implications? An exploration of 2015-2019 administrative data.

BACKGROUND: Primary Health Care (PHC) is the entry point to accessing health services in many countries. Having a high proportion of the population enrolled with a PHC provider is key to ensuring PHC fulfils this role and that it contributes to achieving better equity in health. We aimed to understand the extent to which people in Aotearoa New Zealand are enrolling with Primary Health Organizations (PHOs), how enrolment rates have evolved over time, and variations across District Health Boards (DHBs) and socio-demographic groups. METHODS: We analysed administrative data on the proportion of people enrolled in PHOs and breakdowns across DHBs, and by age, ethnicity and deprivation, for the years 2015-2019. RESULTS: About 6% of the population was not enrolled in 2019. There are persistent differences across socio-demographic groups as well as geographically. Maori have lower enrolment rates than New Zealand European/Other groups. Young people (15-24 years) are the least likely to be enrolled. The most affluent areas have the highest enrolment rates. Auckland DHB shows the lowest enrolment rates. CONCLUSIONS: Enrolments remain below full population coverage and inequities exist between socio-demographic and geographic groups. Potential reasons explaining these trends include methodological limitations as well as real issues in accessing services. We recommend (a) work towards minimising data issues in relation to this indicator to improve its accuracy and value in signalling trends in access to PHC services, and (b) investigating the reasons for the potential widening of the inequities identified, in particular issues preventing Maori and younger people from enrolling. This study deepens our understanding of enrolment rates as an indicator for tracking equity in PHC. Other countries can learn from the Aotearoa New Zealand case to draw lessons for improving equity in health care.

Does milk intake promote prostate cancer initiation or progression via effects on insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)? A systematic review and meta-analysis.

PURPOSE: To establish whether the association between milk intake and prostate cancer operates via the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) pathway (including IGF-I, IGF-II, IGFBP-1, IGFBP-2, and IGFBP-3). METHODS: Systematic review, collating data from all relevant studies examining associations of milk with IGF, and those examining associations of IGF with prostate cancer risk and progression. Data were extracted from experimental and observational studies conducted in either humans or animals, and analyzed using meta-analysis where possible, with summary data presented otherwise. RESULTS: One hundred and seventy-two studies met the inclusion criteria: 31 examining the milk-IGF relationship; 132 examining the IGF-prostate cancer relationship in humans; and 10 animal studies examining the IGF-prostate cancer relationship. There was moderate evidence that circulating IGF-I and IGFBP-3 increase with milk (and dairy protein) intake (an estimated standardized effect size of 0.10 SD increase in IGF-I and 0.05 SD in IGFBP-3 per 1 SD increase in milk intake). There was moderate evidence that prostate cancer risk increased with IGF-I (Random effects meta-analysis OR per SD increase in IGF-I 1.09; 95% CI 1.03, 1.16; n = 51 studies) and decreased with IGFBP-3 (OR 0.90; 0.83, 0.98; n = 39 studies), but not with other growth factors. The IGFBP-3 -202A/C single nucleotide polymorphism was positively associated with prostate cancer (pooled OR for A/C vs. AA = 1.22; 95% CI 0.84, 1.79; OR for C/C vs. AA = 1.51; 1.03, 2.21, n = 8 studies). No strong associations were observed for IGF-II, IGFBP-1 or IGFBP-2 with either milk intake or prostate cancer risk. There was little consistency within the data extracted from the small number of animal studies. There was additional evidence to suggest that the suppression of IGF-II can reduce tumor size, and contradictory evidence with regards to the effect of IGFBP-3 suppression on tumor progression. CONCLUSION: IGF-I is a potential mechanism underlying the observed associations between milk intake and prostate cancer risk.

Post-diagnosis serum insulin-like growth factors in relation to dietary and lifestyle changes in the Prostate testing for cancer and Treatment (ProtecT) trial.

PURPOSE: The insulin-like growth factor (IGF) system is modifiable by diet and lifestyle, and has been linked to prostate cancer development and progression. METHODS: We conducted a prospective cohort study of 621 men diagnosed with localized prostate cancer to investigate the associations of dietary and lifestyle changes with post-diagnosis circulating levels of IGF-I and IGFBP-3. We used analysis of covariance to estimate the associations, controlling for baseline IGF-I or IGFBP-3, respectively. RESULTS: Mean IGF-I levels were 6.5% (95% CI -12.8, -0.3%, p = 0.04) lower in men who decreased their protein intake after diagnosis compared to men who did not change. Men who changed their fruit and vegetable intake had lower IGF-I levels compared to non-changers [Decreased intake: -10.1%, 95% CI -18.4, -1.8%, p = 0.02; Increased intake: -12.0%, 95% CI -18.4, -1.8%, p = 0.002]. IGFBP-3 was 14.6% (95% CI -24.5, -4.8%, p = 0.004) lower in men who achieved a healthy body mass index after diagnosis. Men who became inactive had 9.5% higher average IGF-I levels (95% CI 0.1, 18.9%, p = 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Decreased protein intake and body mass index, and increased physical activity and fruit and vegetable intake, following a prostate cancer diagnosis were associated with reduced post-diagnosis serum IGF-I and IGFBP-3. Counterintuitively, reduced fruit and vegetable intake was also associated with reduced IGF-I, but with weak statistical support, possibly implicating chance. If confirmed in other studies, our findings may inform potential lifestyle interventions in prostate cancer. ProtecT was registered at International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Registry, http://isrctn.org as ISRCTN20141297.

Pre-natal exposures and breast tissue composition: findings from a British pre-birth cohort of young women and a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Breast density, the amount of fibroglandular tissue in the adult breast for a women's age and body mass index, is a strong biomarker of susceptibility to breast cancer, which may, like breast cancer risk itself, be influenced by events early in life. In the present study, we investigated the association between pre-natal exposures and breast tissue composition. METHODS: A sample of 500 young, nulliparous women (aged approximately 21 years) from a U.K. pre-birth cohort underwent a magnetic resonance imaging examination of their breasts to estimate percent water, a measure of the relative amount of fibroglandular tissue equivalent to mammographic percent density. Information on pre-natal exposures was collected throughout the mothers' pregnancy and shortly after delivery. Regression models were used to investigate associations between percent water and pre-natal exposures. Mediation analysis, and a systematic review and meta-analysis of the published literature, were also conducted. RESULTS: Adjusted percent water in young women was positively associated with maternal height (p for linear trend [p t] = 0.005), maternal mammographic density in middle age (p t = 0.018) and the participant's birth size (p t < 0.001 for birthweight). A 1-SD increment in weight (473 g), length (2.3 cm), head circumference (1.2 cm) and Ponderal Index (4.1 g/cm3) at birth were associated with 3 % (95 % CI 2-5 %), 2 % (95 % CI 0-3 %), 3 % (95 % CI 1-4 %) and 1 % (95 % CI 0-3 %), respectively, increases in mean adjusted percent water. The effect of maternal height on the participants' percent water was partly mediated through birth size, but there was little evidence that the effect of birthweight was primarily mediated via adult body size. The meta-analysis supported the study findings, with breast density being positively associated with birth size. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide strong evidence of pre-natal influences on breast tissue composition. The positive association between birth size and relative amount of fibroglandular tissue indicates that breast density and breast cancer risk may share a common pre-natal origin.

Examining if being overweight really confers protection against dementia: Sixty-four year follow-up of participants in the Glasgow University alumni cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Recent large-scale studies suggest that obesity and overweight may confer protection against future dementia. This observation could, however, be generated by reverse causality. That is, weight loss in the incipient phase of dementia ascribed to diminished self-care, including sub-optimal nutrition, would have the effect of generating such an inverse association. One approach to circumventing this problem would be to measure weight in a population which is young enough to be free of the symptoms of dementia which is then followed up for dementia occurrence over many decades. METHODS: In a prospective cohort study, body mass index, and other potential risk factors, were measured in 9547 male university undergraduates (mean age 20.5 years) in 1948-68 who were then linked to national mortality registers. RESULTS: Of 2537 deaths over a mean of 50.6 years follow up, 140 were ascribed to dementia. There was no association between overweight and future dementia deaths (age-adjusted hazard ratio; 95 % confidence interval: 0.93; 0.49, 1.79). CONCLUSION: In this cohort study of former university students, being overweight in youth did not confer protection against later dementia death.

Physical activity, alcohol consumption, BMI and smoking status before and after prostate cancer diagnosis in the ProtecT trial: opportunities for lifestyle modification.

Associations between certain lifestyle characteristics and prostate cancer risk have been reported, and continuation post-diagnosis can adversely affect prognosis. We explored whether men make spontaneous changes to their physical activity and alcohol intake, body mass index (BMI) and smoking status, following a diagnosis of localised prostate cancer. A detailed diet, health and lifestyle questionnaire was completed by 511 participants within the Prostate Testing for Cancer and Treatment (ProtecT) randomised controlled trial, both before and 9 months after a diagnosis of prostate cancer. Of 177 men who were insufficiently active before their diagnosis (median 0 activity units/week; IQR 0-9), 40.7% had increased their activity by a median of 22 U week(-1) (IQR 15-35) 9 months later, and there was weak evidence that men were more active after diagnosis than before (p = 0.07). Men categorised as "working" occupational social class and who were insufficiently active before diagnosis were 2.03 (95%, CI = 1.03-3.99, p = 0.04) times more likely to have increased their physical activity levels compared to men classified as "managerial or professional." Similarly, men who were insufficiently active pre-diagnosis and with T-stage 2 compared with T-stage 1 prostate cancer were 2.47 (95%, CI = 1.29-4.71, p = 0.006) times more likely to be sufficiently active post-diagnosis. Following diagnosis, there was an overall reduction in alcohol intake (p = 0.03) and the proportion of current smokers (p = 0.09), but no overall change in BMI. We conclude that some men spontaneously change certain lifestyle behaviours on receiving a diagnosis of prostate cancer. For many men, however, additional support through lifestyle interventions is probably required to facilitate and maintain these changes.

A systematic review of dietary, nutritional, and physical activity interventions for the prevention of prostate cancer progression and mortality.

PURPOSE: Given the long-term, although potentially fatal, nature of prostate cancer, there is increasing observational evidence for the reduction in disease progression and mortality through changes in lifestyle factors. METHODS: We systematically reviewed dietary, nutritional, and physical activity randomized interventions aimed at modifying prostate cancer progression and disease-specific mortality, including a detailed assessment of risk of bias and methodological quality. RESULTS: Forty-four randomized controlled trials of lifestyle interventions, with prostate cancer progression or mortality outcomes, were identified. Substantial heterogeneity of the data prevented a meta-analysis. The included trials involved 3,418 prostate cancer patients, median 64 men per trial, from 13 countries. A trial of a nutritional supplement of pomegranate seed, green tea, broccoli, and turmeric; a trial comparing flaxseed, low-fat diet, flaxseed, and low-fat diet versus usual diet; and a trial supplementing soy, lycopene, selenium, and coenzyme Q10, all demonstrated beneficial effects. These trials were also assessed as having low risk of bias and high methodological quality (as were seven other trials with no evidence of benefit). The remaining trials were either underpowered, at high or unclear risk of bias, inadequately reported, of short duration or measured surrogate outcomes of unproven relationship to mortality or disease progression, which precluded any benefits reported being reliable. CONCLUSION: Large, well-designed randomized trials with clinical endpoints are recommended for lifestyle modification interventions.

The effect of pre-diagnostic vitamin D supplementation on cancer survival in women: a cohort study within the UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink.

BACKGROUND: There remains uncertainty in whether vitamin D status affects cancer survival. We investigated whether vitamin D (± calcium) supplementation affects cancer survival in women. METHODS: Participants were women aged ≥55 years identified from the UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink (CPRD) with a first diagnosis of breast, colorectal, lung, ovarian or uterine cancer between 2002 and 2009, and at least 5 years of CPRD data prior to diagnosis. Cox proportional hazards were used to estimate hazard ratios (HR) and 95 % confidence intervals (CI) of the relationship between pre-diagnostic vitamin D supplementation and all-cause mortality. To avoid confounding by indication, the primary analysis compared women with 3+ to 1-2 (but no more) vitamin D prescriptions. Models were adjusted for pre-diagnostic body mass index, smoking, alcohol and deprivation. A sensitivity analysis excluded supplements prescribed in the year prior to diagnosis. RESULTS: Exposure to 3 or more versus 1 to 2 prescriptions of vitamin D was not associated with survival from any of the cancers studied. Any vitamin D prescription, compared to never having been prescribed one, was associated with a better survival from breast cancer (HR 0.78, 95 % CI 0.70 to 0.88). The sensitivity analysis suggested a possible detrimental effect of vitamin D supplementation on lung cancer outcomes (HR for 3 versus 1 or 2 prescriptions 1.22 (95 % CI 0.94 to 1.57); HR for any versus no prescriptions 1.09 (0.98 to 1.22)). CONCLUSIONS: We found no evidence that vitamin D supplementation is associated with survival among women with cancer. Previous observational findings of beneficial effects of vitamin D supplementation on cancer survival may be confounded.

Primary care characteristics and stage of cancer at diagnosis using data from the national cancer registration service, quality outcomes framework and general practice information.

BACKGROUND: Survival from cancer is worse in England than in some European countries. To improve survival, strategies in England have focused on early presentation (reducing delay to improve stage at diagnosis), improving quality of care and ensuring equity throughout the patient pathway. We assessed whether primary care characteristics were associated with later stage cancer at diagnosis (stages 3/4 versus 1/2) for female breast, lung, colorectal and prostate cancer. METHODS: Data obtained from the National Cancer Registration Service, Quality Outcomes Framework, GP survey and GP workforce census, linked by practice code. Risk differences (RD) were calculated by primary care characteristics using a generalised linear model, accounting for patient clustering within practices. Models were adjusted for age, sex and an area-based deprivation measure. RESULTS: For female breast cancer, being with a practice with a higher two week wait (TWW) referral rate (RD -1.8% (95 % CI -0.5% to -3.2%) p = 0.003) and a higher TWW detection rate (RD -1.7% (95 % CI -0.3% to -3.0%) p = 0.003) was associated with a lower proportion diagnosed later. Being at a practice where people thought it less easy to book at appointment was associated with a higher percentage diagnosed later (RD 1.8% (95 % CI 0.2% to 3.4%) p = 0.03). For lung cancer, being at practices with higher TWW referral rates was associated with lower proportion advanced (RD-3.6% (95 % CI -1.8%, -5.5%) p < 0.001) whereas being at practices with more patients per GP was associated with higher proportion advanced (RD1.8% (95 % CI 0.2, 3.4) p = 0.01). A higher rate of gastrointestinal investigations was associated with a lower proportion of later stage colorectal cancers (RD -2.0% (95 % CI -0.6% to -3.6%) p = 0.01). No organisational characteristics were associated with prostate cancer stage. CONCLUSION: Easier access to primary care, faster referral and more investigation for gastrointestinal symptoms could reduce the proportion of people diagnosed later for female breast, lung and colorectal, but not prostate cancer. Differences between the four main cancers suggest different policies may be required for individual cancers to improve outcomes.

Survival for patients with chronic leukemias in the US and Britain: Age-related disparities and changes in the early 21st century.

BACKGROUND: Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) and chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) are highly treatable conditions occurring primarily in older patients. Lower survival among older people has been reported in both conditions, but newer treatments may change both the overall survival rate and the relative risk associated with aging. Here, we examine survival for patients with CLL and CML in the United States (US) and England. METHODS: Patients with CLL and CML were identified from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (US) and National Cancer Registry (England). Five-year relative survival was calculated by major age group. Excess hazard ratios (EHR) by age were calculated for each condition, and multivariable analysis was performed to adjust for the following potential confounders: gender, race or ethnic group (US only), period of diagnosis, and a measure of socioeconomic deprivation (England only). RESULTS: Five-year relative survival increased for both CLL and CML in both England and the US between 1996-2000 and 2006-2010. However, relative age-related disparities persisted. For CLL, the EHR for death was 9.44 (7.84-11.36) in the US and 6.14 (5.65-6.68) in England for ages 85+ compared to ages 55-64. For CML, the EHR was 3.52 (3.17-3.90) in the US and 4.54 (4.13-4.98) in England for ages 75+ compared to ages 45-64. CONCLUSIONS: Survival improved for patients with chronic leukemias in the early 21st century. However, age-related disparities persist, despite clinical trial evidence that treatment in older adults with chronic leukemia can be safe and effective. Further research to determine the reasons for the lower survival in older patients and greater awareness of this problem may improve survival for older patients with chronic leukemia.

Barriers to and delays in accessing breast cancer care among New Zealand women: disparities by ethnicity.

BACKGROUND: Unequal access to health care contributes to disparities in cancer outcomes. We examined the ethnic disparity in barriers to accessing primary and specialist health care experienced by New Zealand women with breast cancer. METHODS: Women diagnosed with a primary invasive breast cancer between 2005 and 2007 were eligible. There were 1,799 respondents, n = 302 Maori (the indigenous population of NZ), n = 70 Pacific and n = 1,427 non-Maori/non-Pacific women. Participants completed a questionnaire listing 12 barriers grouped into three domains for analysis: personal; practical; and health care process factors, and reported the number of days between seeing a primary and a specialist care provider. Chi-squared, Fisher exact tests and logistic regression were used to assess uni- and multivariable differences in prevalence between ethnic groupings. RESULTS: The prevalence of reporting three or more barriers was 18% among Pacific, 10% among Maori and 3% among non-Maori/non-Pacific women (P <0.001). The most commonly reported barriers were fear (Maori women) and cost (Pacific and non-Maori/non-Pacific women). Ethnic differences in reported barriers were not explained by deprivation or diabetes prevalence. Women with diabetes reported a two-fold higher risk of experiencing barriers to care compared to those without diabetes (odds ratio [OR]: 2.06, 95%CI 1.20 to 3.57). Maori and Pacific women were more likely to face delays (median 14 days) in seeing a specialist than non-Maori/non-Pacific women (median 7 days); these differences were not explained by the reported barriers. CONCLUSIONS: Patterns of reported barriers to care differed according to ethnicity and were not explained by deprivation, or presence of co-morbidity. Maori and Pacific women are more likely to experience barriers to breast cancer care compared to non- Maori/non-Pacific women. We identified two key barriers affecting care for Maori and Pacific women; (a) delays in follow-up, and (b) the impact of co-morbid conditions. Future New Zealand work needs to focus attention on health care process factors and improving the interface between primary and secondary care to ensure quality health care is realised for all women with breast cancer.

Age disparities in survival from lymphoma and myeloma: a comparison between US and England.

Population-level survival in older patients with lymphoma is significantly lower than in younger patients. In this study, data were obtained from cancer registries in England and the United States (US) for patients diagnosed with Hodgkin lymphoma (HL), non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) and myeloma. Five-year relative survival was calculated using period analysis. Generalised linear models were used to determine excess hazard ratios (EHR) for older compared to younger patients. Five-year relative survival was lower for older patients diagnosed with HL, NHL and myeloma in both countries. The greatest age-related survival inequality was observed for patients with HL: in 2006-10 the EHR comparing patients aged 75 + years with those aged 15-24 years was 14·02 in the US and 15·69 in England. For NHL, the EHR was 1·91 in the US and 3·81 in England. For myeloma, comparing patients aged 75 + years with those aged 25-44 years, the EHR was 2·79 in the US and 3·60 in England. Survival of patients with lymphoma is lower for older patients in both the US and England but the discrepancy is less in the US. Physicians should be encouraged to evaluate patients' frailty and co-morbidities as well as their age when considering treatment options for patients with lymphoma and myeloma.

The association of vitamin D supplementation with the risk of cancer in postmenopausal women.

PURPOSE: There is inconclusive evidence on whether vitamin D therapy reduces cancer risk. We investigated the effect of vitamin D (±calcium) supplementation on the risk of breast, ovarian, uterine, colorectal, and lung cancer in women. METHODS: We conducted a case-control study using the UK Clinical Practice Research Datalink (CPRD); cases were women aged ≥55 years with a first diagnosis of either breast, colorectal, lung, ovarian, or uterine cancer between 2002 and 2009, with at least 5 years of CPRD follow-up prior to the date of diagnosis, and controls were women without cancer, frequency-matched to cases by year of birth, date of study entry, length of follow-up, and general practice. The association of vitamin D supplementation with the odds of developing each cancer was determined using multivariable logistic regression, controlling for body mass index, smoking, alcohol, and deprivation. RESULTS: Ninety-seven percent of women took vitamin D with a calcium supplement. Exposure to three or more prescriptions of vitamin D was associated with a 17 % reduced odds (95 % CI 0.71-0.97) of breast cancer versus 1-2 prescriptions, but this effect disappeared when omitting women first exposed within a year of diagnosis (OR 1.0, 95 % CI 0.82-1.23). Having more than 10 prescriptions of vitamin D was associated with a 17 % lower odds (95 % CI 0.65-1.06) of colorectal cancer, but the estimates are imprecise. There was little evidence of associations of supplements with lung or gynecological cancers. CONCLUSION: We found little evidence that vitamin D (largely with calcium) supplementation is associated with decreased breast, lung, ovarian, and uterine cancer risk. There is a possible protective association between having more than 10 prescriptions of vitamin D supplements and colorectal cancer, but it requires further investigation.

The association of time between diagnosis and major resection with poorer colorectal cancer survival: a retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Colorectal cancer survival in the UK is lower than in other developed countries, but the association of time interval between diagnosis and treatment on excess mortality remains unclear. METHODS: Using data from cancer registries in England, we identified 46,511 patients with localised colorectal cancer between 1996-2009, who were 15 years and older, and who underwent a major surgical resection within 62 days of diagnosis. We used relative survival and excess risk modeling to investigate the association of time between diagnosis and major resection (exposure) with survival (outcome). RESULTS: Compared to patients who had major resection within 25-38 days of diagnosis, patients with a shorter time interval between diagnosis and resection and those waiting longer for resection had higher excess mortality (Excess Hazards Ratio, EHR <25 vs 25-38 days: 1.50; 95% Confidence Interval, CI: 1.37 to 1.66; EHR 39-62 vs 25-38 days : 1.16; 95% CI: 1.04 to 1.29). Excess mortality was associated with age (EHR 75+ vs. 15-44 year olds: 2.62; 95% CI: 2.00 to 3.42) and deprivation (EHR most vs. least deprived: 1.27; 95% CI: 1.12 to 1.45), but time between diagnosis and resection did not explain these differences. CONCLUSION: Within 62 days of diagnosis, a U-shaped association of time between diagnosis and major resection with excess mortality for localised colorectal cancer was evident. This indicates a complicated treatment pathway, particularly for patients who had resection earlier than 25 days, and requires further investigation.

Healthy lifestyle and risk of breast cancer for indigenous and non-indigenous women in New Zealand: a case control study.

BACKGROUND: The reasons for the increasing breast cancer incidence in indigenous Maori compared to non-Maori New Zealand women are unknown. The aim of this study was to assess the association of an index of combined healthy lifestyle behaviours with the risk of breast cancer in Maori and non-Maori women. METHODS: A population-based case-control study was conducted, including breast cancer cases registered in New Zealand from 2005-2007. Controls were matched by ethnicity and 5-year age bands. A healthy lifestyle index score (HLIS) was generated for 1093 cases and 2118 controls, based on public health and cancer prevention recommendations. The HLIS was constructed from eleven factors (limiting red meat, cream, and cheese; consuming more white meat, fish, fruit and vegetables; lower alcohol consumption; not smoking; higher exercise levels; lower body mass index; and longer cumulative duration of breastfeeding). Equal weight was given to each factor. Logistic regression was used to estimate the associations between breast cancer and the HLIS for each ethnic group stratified by menopausal status. RESULTS: Among Maori, the mean HLIS was 5.00 (range 1-9); among non-Maori the mean was 5.43 (range 1.5-10.5). There was little evidence of an association between the HLIS and breast cancer for non-Maori women. Among postmenopausal Maori, those in the top HLIS tertile had a significantly lower odds of breast cancer (Odds Ratio 0.47, 95% confidence interval 0.23-0.94) compared to those in the bottom tertile. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that healthy lifestyle recommendations could be important for reducing breast cancer risk in postmenopausal Maori women.

Establishing a large prospective clinical cohort in people with head and neck cancer as a biomedical resource: head and neck 5000.

BACKGROUND: Head and neck cancer is an important cause of ill health. Survival appears to be improving but the reasons for this are unclear. They could include evolving aetiology, modifications in care, improvements in treatment or changes in lifestyle behaviour. Observational studies are required to explore survival trends and identify outcome predictors. METHODS: We are identifying people with a new diagnosis of head and neck cancer. We obtain consent that includes agreement to collect longitudinal data, store samples and record linkage. Prior to treatment we give participants three questionnaires on health and lifestyle, quality of life and sexual history. We collect blood and saliva samples, complete a clinical data capture form and request a formalin fixed tissue sample. At four and twelve months we complete further data capture forms and send participants further quality of life questionnaires. DISCUSSION: This large clinical cohort of people with head and neck cancer brings together clinical data, patient-reported outcomes and biological samples in a single co-ordinated resource for translational and prognostic research.

Addressing closed and limited enrolments in general practices in Aotearoa New Zealand: a mixed-methods study.

AIM: To ascertain the reasons for and impacts of closed books in general practices in Aotearoa New Zealand and report recommendations for mitigation. METHOD: A mixed-methods approach was used. A first round of interviews with experts in the primary care sector was conducted, followed by a survey across general practices and, finally, a second round of interviews. Data reported here are qualitative data from the interviews and open-ended questions in the survey. Qualitative data were analysed using a general inductive approach. RESULTS: The key reasons for not enrolling new patients included workforce shortages, high workloads and staff burnout, funding issues, concerns about quality of care and insufficient physical space. These were exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic. The impacts included no access or delayed access to primary care, worsening health conditions, undiagnosed or untreated diseases and less or no access to preventive care. Recommendations included recruiting more staff including administrative staff, resolving the pay disparity between general practice and hospital staff, having a longer placement period for students in general practice, utilising a multidisciplinary workforce and revising the funding formula. CONCLUSION: There is an urgent need to resolve key issues so that general practices can accept all who wish to enrol.

Consequences of cost barriers to prescriptions: cohort study in Aotearoa New Zealand.

AIMS: A NZ$5 co-payment prescription charge was removed in July 2023 but may be reinstated. Here we quantify the health impact and cost of not being able to afford this charge. METHODS: We linked New Zealand Health Surveys (2013/2014-2018/2019) to hospitalisation data using data available in Integrated Data Infrastructure (IDI). Cox proportional-hazards models compared time to hospitalisation between those who had faced a cost barrier to collecting a prescription and those who had not. RESULTS: Of the 81,626 total survey respondents, 72,243 were available for analysis in IDI. A further 516 were excluded to give an analysis dataset of 71,502. Of these, 5,889 (8.2%) reported not collecting a prescription due to cost in the previous year. Among people who faced a cost barrier, 60.0% (95% confidence interval [CI] 58.7-61.2%) were admitted to hospital during the study period, compared to 43.9% (95% CI 43.6-44.3%) of those who did not. Having adjusted for socio-demographic variables, people who faced a cost barrier were 34% (hazard ratio 1.34; 95% CI 1.29-1.39) more likely to be admitted to hospital than those who did not. Annual avoidable hospitalisation costs-were prescription co-payments to remain free-are estimated at $32.4 million per year based on the assumption of a causal relationship between unmet need for prescription medicines and subsequent hospitalisation. CONCLUSIONS: The revenue to the health system from co-payments may be offset by the costs associated with avoidable hospitalisations.