The lipopeptide antibiotic Friulimicin B inhibits cell wall biosynthesis through complex formation with bactoprenol phosphate.

Friulimicin B is a naturally occurring cyclic lipopeptide, produced by the actinomycete Actinoplanes friuliensis, with excellent activity against gram-positive pathogens, including multidrug-resistant strains. It consists of a macrocyclic decapeptide core and a lipid tail, interlinked by an exocyclic amino acid. Friulimicin is water soluble and amphiphilic, with an overall negative charge. Amphiphilicity is enhanced in the presence of Ca(2+), which is also indispensable for antimicrobial activity. Friulimicin shares these physicochemical properties with daptomycin, which is suggested to kill gram-positive bacteria through the formation of pores in the cytoplasmic membrane. In spite of the fact that friulimicin shares features of structure and potency with daptomycin, we found that friulimicin has a unique mode of action and severely affects the cell envelope of gram-positive bacteria, acting via a defined target. We found friulimicin to interrupt the cell wall precursor cycle through the formation of a Ca(2+)-dependent complex with the bactoprenol phosphate carrier C(55)-P, which is not targeted by any other antibiotic in use. Since C(55)-P also serves as a carrier in teichoic acid biosynthesis and capsule formation, it is likely that friulimicin blocks multiple pathways that are essential for a functional gram-positive cell envelope.

Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry for fast and reliable identification of clinical yeast isolates.

The clinical impact of severe infections with yeasts and yeast-like fungi has increased, especially in immunocompromised hosts. In recent years, new antifungal agents with different and partially species-specific activity patterns have become available. Therefore, rapid and reliable species identification is essential for antifungal treatment; however, conventional biochemical methods are time-consuming and require considerable expertise. We evaluated matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) for the rapid routine identification of clinical yeast isolates. A total of 18 type collection strains and 267 recent clinical isolates of Candida (n = 250), Cryptococcus, Saccharomyces, Trichosporon, Geotrichum, Pichia, and Blastoschizomyces spp. were identified by MALDI-TOF MS. The results were compared with those obtained by conventional phenotyping and biochemical tests, including the API ID 32C system (bioMérieux, Nürtingen, Germany). Starting with cells from single colonies, accurate species identification by MALDI-TOF MS was achieved for 247 of the clinical isolates (92.5%). The remaining 20 isolates required complementation of the reference database with spectra for the appropriate reference strains which were obtained from type culture collections or identified by 26S rRNA gene sequencing. The absence of a suitable reference strain from the MALDI-TOF MS database was clearly indicated by log(score) values too low for the respective clinical isolates; i.e., no false-positive identifications occurred. After complementation of the database, all isolates were unambiguously identified. The established API ID 32C biochemical diagnostic system identified 244 isolates in the first round. Overall, MALDI-TOF MS proved a most rapid and reliable tool for the identification of yeasts and yeast-like fungi, with the method providing a combination of the lowest expenditure of consumables, easy interpretation of results, and a fast turnaround time.

Long-term responses of canine lungs to acidic particles.

Sixteen beagle dogs were housed in four large chambers under minimum restraint. They were exposed for 16 months to clean air and individual baseline data of markers were obtained. For 13 months, eight dogs were further exposed to clean air and eight dogs for 6 h/d to 1-microm MMAD (mass median aerodynamic diameter) acidic sulfate particles carrying 25 micromol H(+) m(-3) into their lungs. To establish functional responses (lung function, cell and tissue integrity, redox balance, and non-specific respiratory defense capacity), each exposed animal served as its own control. To establish structural responses, the eight non-exposed animals served as controls. Acidic particles were produced by nebulization of aqueous sodium hydrogen sulfate at pH 1.5. Only subtle exposure-related changes of lung function and structure were detected. A significant increase in respiratory burst function of alveolar macrophages points to a marginal inflammatory response. This can be explained by the significant production of prostaglandin E(2), activating cyclooxygenase-dependent mechanisms in epithelia and thus inhibiting lung inflammation. The non-specific defense capacity was slightly affected, giving increased tracheal mucus velocity and reduced in vivo dissolution of moderately soluble test particles. Hypertrophy and hyperplasia of bronchial epithelia were not observed, but there was an increase in volume density of bronchial glands and a shift from neutral to acidic staining of epithelial secretory cells in distal airways. The acidic exposure had thus no pathophysiological consequences. It is therefore unlikely that long-term inhalation of acidic particles is associated with a health risk.

Effect of leader peptide mutations on biosynthesis of the lantibiotic Pep5.

Lantibiotics are lanthionine-containing antibiotic peptides which are synthesized from ribosomal prepeptides by post-translational modification. In order to elucidate the function of a conserved motif in the N-terminal leader sequence of lantibiotic prepeptides, three amino acids were exchanged in the leader peptide sequence of the lantibiotic Pep5. Exchanging Phe-19 for Ser and Glu-16 for Lys in the FDLEI-motif, reduced Pep5 production to 35 and 38% of the control whereas, after exchanging Asp-6 for Ser and Glu-16 for Lys in the FDLEI-motif, reduced Pep5 production to 35 and 38% of the control whereas, after exchanging ASp-6 for Lys, the production was decreased only to 82%. Proteolytic fragments of Pep5 or incorrectly modified Pep5 molecules, indicative of incorrect modifications, were not found in the culture supernatant. Thus, in contrast to the biosynthesis of the lantibiotic nisin, the FDLEI-motif is not essential for biosynthesis of Pep5 and has no influence on correct ring formation or processing, but seems to be important for optimal biosynthesis rates.

Health effects of sulfur-related environmental air pollution: the pulmonary surfactant system is not disturbed by exposure to acidic sulfate and neutral sulfite aerosols.

The goal of this study was to assess the impact of long-term exposure to environmental sulfur-related aerosols on the biochemical and biophysical properties of lung surfactant. Eight Beagle dogs were housed under clean air conditions for 450 days, followed by an exposure period of 400 days to 0.36 mg/m3 of sulfite (16.5 h/d) and to 5.66 mg/m3 of sulfate (6 h/d) equivalent to a pulmonary hydrogen burden of 15 mumol/m3. Other dogs kept in clean air for the whole study period were additional controls. Serial bronchoalveolar lavages (BALs) were analyzed for total phospholipid concentration, content and ratio of a surfactant-rich large aggregate (LA) fraction and a small aggregate (SA) fraction, in vitro surface area cycling of LAs into SAs as a measure of alveolar extracellular pulmonary surfactant aggregate metabolism, and surface activity of native and lipid-extracted LA. No significant changes over time and no differences between the clean air period and the exposure period were observed. Thus, long-term environmental exposure of dogs to the sulfur-related air pollution tested does not lead to alterations in the amount, extracellular metabolism, or surface-active properties of pulmonary surfactant.

Methods for the differentiation of giant cells in canine and feline neoplasias in paraffin sections.

In the following study cells with at least two cell nuclei are addressed as giant cells. In 47 biopsies of feline neoplasias (fibrosarcoma, haemangioendothelsarcoma, mammary adenocarcinoma, osteoidsarcoma, complex sarcoma), and 25 biopsies of canine neoplasias (malignant seminoma, mammary adenocarcinoma, haemangioendothelsarcoma, fibrosarcoma, osteoblastic sarcoma, complex sarcoma) giant cells are distinguished either as neoplastic giant cells or as reactive (non-neoplastic) giant cells. Cell nuclei of neoplastic giant cells which are labelled with the monoclonal antibody MIB 1 are mitotic active; cell nuclei are polymorph and can show atypical mitosis; the cytoplasmic reaction with tartrate resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) is negative. Negative reactions with MIB 1, positive TRAP staining and homogeneous cell nuclei are distinctive for osteoclast-like glant cells. Other non-neoplastic giant cells (e.g. foreign body cells, Langhans-giant cells) are negative with both MIB 1 and TRAP. Double staining of paraffin sections is possible. Routine formalin-fixation, embedding in paraffin and decalcifying tissue samples do not interfere with MIB 1 immunoreactions or TRAP reactions. Methodological modifications that were necessary for the preparation of paraffin sections from canine and feline tissue samples are discussed. As the presence of neoplastic giant tumour cells is an index for a poor prognosis in human medicine, not only the entity of the tumour must be named, but also the exact significance of the giant cell type:, e.g. fibrosarcoma with osteoclast-like giant cells, hepatic carcinoma with reactive giant cells, malignant seminoma with neoplastic giant cells, angiosarcoma with both neoplastic giant cells and osteoclast-like giant cells. This would enable the classification of further neoplasias dealing with clinical courses of the diseases. Over the past years our stains have remained stable. It is possible to carry out retrospective investigations with archived tissue samples and make permanent preparations. A reclassification and a refined form of diagnosis (tumour and giant cell type) would be recommended.

Engineering of a novel thioether bridge and role of modified residues in the lantibiotic Pep5.

Pep5 is a 34-amino-acid antimicrobial peptide, produced by Staphylococcus epidermidis 5, that contains the thioether amino acids lanthionine and methyllanthionine, which form three intramolecular ring structures. In addition, two didehydrobutyrines are present in the central part of the lantibiotic and an oxobutyryl residue is located at the N terminus. All rare amino acids are introduced by posttranslational modifications of a ribosomally made precursor peptide. To elucidate the function of the modified residues for the antimicrobial action of Pep5, mutant peptides, in which single modified residues had been eliminated, were produced by site-directed mutagenesis. All of these peptides showed a reduced antimicrobial activity. In addition, those peptides from which the ring structures had been deleted became susceptible to proteolytic digest. This demonstrates that the ring structures serve as stabilizers of conformations essential for activity, e.g., amphiphilicity, as well as for protecting Pep5 against proteases of the producing strains. In addition, residues that could serve as precursors of new modified amino acids in lantibiotics were introduced into the Pep5 precursor peptide. This way, a novel methyllanthionine and a didehydroalanine were inserted into the flexible central part of Pep5, demonstrating that biosynthesis of modified amino acids is feasible by protein engineering and use of the lantibiotic modification system.

Role of lipid-bound peptidoglycan precursors in the formation of pores by nisin, epidermin and other lantibiotics.

It is generally assumed that type A lantibiotics primarily kill bacteria by permeabilization of the cytoplasmic membrane. As previous studies had demonstrated that nisin interacts with the membrane-bound peptidoglycan precursors lipid I and lipid II, we presumed that this interaction could play a role in the pore formation process of lantibiotics. Using a thin-layer chromatography system, we found that only nisin and epidermin, but not Pep5, can form a complex with [14C]-lipid II. Lipid II was then purified from Micrococcus luteus and incorporated into carboxyfluorescein-loaded liposomes made of phosphatidylcholine and cholesterol (1:1). Liposomes supplemented with 0.05 or 0.1 mol% of lipid II did not release any marker when treated with Pep5 or epilancin K7 (peptide concentrations of up to 5 mol% were tested). In contrast, as little as 0.01 mol% of epidermin and 0.1 mol% of nisin were sufficient to induce rapid marker release; phosphatidylglycerol-containing liposomes were even more susceptible. Controls with moenomycin-, undecaprenol- or dodecaprenolphosphate-doped liposomes demonstrated the specificity of the lantibiotics for lipid II. These results were correlated with intact cells in an in vivo model. M. luteus and Staphylococcus simulans were depleted of lipid II by preincubation with the lipopeptide ramoplanin and then tested for pore formation. When applied in concentrations below the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and up to 5-10 times the MIC, the pore formation by nisin and epidermin was blocked; at higher concentrations of the lantibiotics the protective effect of ramoplanin disappeared. These results demonstrate that, in vitro and in vivo, lipid II serves as a docking molecule for nisin and epidermin, but not for Pep5 and epilancin K7, and thereby facilitates the formation of pores in the cytoplasmic membrane.

Biosynthesis of the lantibiotic Pep5. Isolation and characterization of a prepeptide containing dehydroamino acids.

Pep5 is a tricyclic peptide antibiotic which contains the unusual amino acids dehydrobutyrine, lanthionine and 3-methyllanthionine. It is matured from a 60-amino-acid precursor peptide (pre-Pep5) deduced from the sequence of the structural gene pepA. To study the biosynthesis of Pep5 we tried to isolate the primary translation product. We identified a peptide in crude extracts of the Pep5-producing Staphylococcus epidermidis strain using antibodies raised against a synthetic 26-residue peptide representing the leader peptide region of pre-Pep5. The putative precursor was purified by reversed-phase HPLC. The isolated peptide did not react with antibodies directed against a C-terminal fragment of mature Pep5 containing two sulfide bridges. Neither lanthionine nor 3-methyllanthionine was detected in amino acid analysis of the isolated precursor. Its amino acid sequence was identical with the sequence predicted from pepA, but Edman degradation stopped at the first threonine residue of the prolantibiotic region indicating a posttranslational modification at this position. The molecular mass of the isolated peptide was 6575.4 +/- 1.7 Da, determined by ion-spray mass spectrometry. This is in agreement with a molecule being dehydrated at the four threonine and the two serine residues in the propeptide region; such a peptide has a calculated molecular mass of 6576.7 Da. The results strongly suggest that maturation of the lantibiotic Pep5 is initiated by selective dehydration of hydroxyamino acids in the propeptide region of the primary translation product and that thioether ring formation is not closely linked to dehydration.

Isolation, characterization, and heterologous expression of the novel lantibiotic epicidin 280 and analysis of its biosynthetic gene cluster.

Epicidin 280 is a novel type A lantibiotic produced by Staphylococcus epidermidis BN 280. During C18 reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography two epicidin 280 peaks were obtained; the two compounds had molecular masses of 3,133 +/- 1.5 and 3,136 +/- 1.5 Da, comparable antibiotic activities, and identical amino acid compositions. Amino acid sequence analysis revealed that epicidin 280 exhibits 75% similarity to Pep5. The strains that produce epicidin 280 and Pep5 exhibit cross-immunity, indicating that the immunity peptides cross-function in antagonization of both lantibiotics. The complete epicidin 280 gene cluster was cloned and was found to comprise at least five open reading frames (eciI, eciA, eciP, eciB, and eciC, in that order). The proteins encoded by these open reading frames exhibit significant sequence similarity to the biosynthetic proteins of the Pep5 operon of Staphylococcus epidermidis 5. A gene for an ABC transporter, which is present in the Pep5 gene cluster but is necessary only for high yields (G. Bierbaum, M. Reis, C. Szekat, and H.-G. Sahl, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60:4332-4338, 1994), was not detected. Instead, upstream of the immunity gene eciI we found an open reading frame, eciO, which could code for a novel lantibiotic modification enzyme involved in reduction of an N-terminally located oxopropionyl residue. Epicidin 280 produced by the heterologous host Staphylococcus carnosus TM 300 after introduction of eciIAPBC (i.e., no eciO was present) behaved homogeneously during reverse-phase chromatography.

Different mechanisms of insensitivity to the staphylococcin-like peptide Pep 5.

Three different mechanisms of insensitivity to the bactericidal membrane disrupting action of the staphylococcin-like peptide Pep 5 were found to occur among certain Gram-positive bacteria. i) The immunity of the producer of Pep 5 Staphylococcus epidermidis 5 was shown to be due to a Pep 5 antagonist, which was excreted along with Pep 5 during growth. The cells were killed by Pep 5 when incubated with high doses exceeding the concentration of the antagonist. ii) Bacillus subtilis W23 produced a protease which cleaved Pep 5 into fragments with greatly reduced bactericidal activity. Like with S. epidermidis 5, cells of B. subtilis were susceptible to the membrane damaging action of the peptide and growth in culture was only possible after inactivation of Pep 5. iii) By prolonged incubation in the presence of Pep 5 resistant mutants of S. cohnii 22 and S. epidermidis 5 Pep 5- could be selected. Their cytoplasmic membrane was not sufficiently disrupted by the peptide to promote active killing, resulting in unhindered growth of these mutants in the presence of high doses (200 AU/ml) of Pep 5.

Extensive post-translational modification, including serine to D-alanine conversion, in the two-component lantibiotic, lacticin 3147.

Lacticin 3147 is a two-component bacteriocin produced by Lactococcus lactis subspecies lactis DPC3147. In order to further characterize the biochemical nature of the bacteriocin, both peptides were isolated which together are responsible for the antimicrobial activity. The first, LtnA1, is a 3,322 Da 30-amino acid peptide and the second component, LtnA2, is a 29-amino acid peptide with a mass of 2,847 Da. Conventional amino acid analysis revealed that both peptides contain the thioether amino acid, lanthionine, as well as an excess of alanine to that predicted from the genetic sequence of the peptides. Chiral phase gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry of amino acid composition indicated that both LtnA1 and LtnA2 contain D-alanine residues and amino acid sequence analysis of LtnA1 confirmed that the D-alanine results from post-translational modification of a serine residue in the primary translation product. Taken together, these results demonstrate that lacticin 3147 is a novel, two-component, D-alanine containing lantibiotic that undergoes extensive post-translational modification which may account for its potent antimicrobial activity against a wide range of Gram-positive bacteria.

Spermine deficiency in Gy mice caused by deletion of the spermine synthase gene.

Two mouse mutations gyro (Gy) and hypophosphatemia (Hyp) are mouse models for X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets and have been shown to be deleted for the 5' and 3' end of the mouse homolog of PHEX (phosphate regulating gene with homologies to endopeptidases on the X chromosome; formerly called PEX), respectively. In addition to the metabolic disorder observed in Hyp mice, male Gy mice are sterile and show circling behavior and reduced viability. The human SMS (spermine synthase) gene maps approximately 39 kb upstream of PHEX and is transcribed in the same direction. To elucidate the complex phenotype of Gy mice, we characterized the genomic region upstream of Phex. By establishing the genomic structure of mouse Sms, a 160-190 kb deletion was shown in Gy mice, which includes both Phex and Sms. There are several pseudogenes of SMS / Sms in man and mouse. Northern analysis revealed three different Sms transcripts which are absent in Gy mice. Measurement of polyamine levels revealed a marked decrease in spermine in liver and pancreas of affected male Gy mice. Analysis of brain tissue revealed no gross or histological abnormalities. Gy provides a mouse model for a defect in the polyamine pathway, which is known to play a key role in cell proliferation.

Xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes in the canine respiratory tract.

Airway epithelial surface is the primary target of airborne pollutants. To estimate the distribution of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes in the respiratory tract of dogs, epithelia from different airway sites of four animals were analyzed for metabolism of sulfite (sulfite oxidase) and formaldehyde (formaldehyde dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase). In addition, glutathione S-transferases were assayed using several model substrates. Enzyme activities were compared with those found in liver parenchyma. The activity of sulfite oxidase was found to be comparable in nose, trachea, and proximal and medium bronchi, but appeared to be lower in lung parenchyma of most animals. In contrast, hepatic sulfite oxidase activity of these animals was substantially higher compared to that in airway epithelia. The activity of glutathione-dependent formaldehyde dehydrogenase (FDH) appeared to be highest in nose and lowest in distal bronchi, lung, and liver parenchyma. The distribution pattern of the glutathione-independent aldehyde dehydrogenase (AldDH) in the respiratory tract was different from that of FDH. Levels of AldDH were about 5- to 10-fold lower than those of FDH, suggesting that AldDH is of minor importance for pulmonary formaldehyde detoxification. With regard to ethanol detoxification by a class I alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), no measurable enzyme activity could be detected at most respiratory sites contrary to the high activity found in liver parenchyma. Regarding glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), different distributions of enzyme activities were found in the large and small airways when using three substrates. The 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB)-related activities in the cytosolic fraction of the upper (nose, trachea) and lower airways (proximal, medium and distal bronchi) were higher than those in the microsomal fraction. Interestingly, there was no difference between CDNB-related activities in the cytosolic and microsomal fraction of the liver. Highest cytosolic activities were found in the nose, and were comparable to those detected in the liver parenchyma. The cytosolic 1,2-dichloro-4-nitrobenzene (DCNB)-related activities in the nose, proximal bronchi, and lung parenchyma were appeared to be markedly higher than those in trachea and medium and distal bronchi, while the microsomal activities were not detectable at most respiratory sites. In contrast, distinctly higher activities were measured in both fractions of liver tissue. Cytosolic 1, 2-epoxy-3-(p-nitrophenoxy)-propane (EPNP)-related activities were present in upper and lower airways including lung parenchyma at comparable levels, while in liver tissue the mean activities were distinctly lower. No EPNP-related activities were found in the microsomal fractions. In conclusion, most xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes investigated in this study could be detected in epithelia of various respiratory sites. The most outstanding result revealed higher levels of FDH activity in the nose and downstream to the medium bronchi in comparison to those found in the small airways, lung, and liver tissue. Similarly, the EPNP-related GST exhibited a distinctly higher activity at all respiratory sites compared to the activity in liver tissue, suggesting a different regulation of this enzyme in lung and liver.

Health effects of sulfur-related environmental air pollution. III. Nonspecific respiratory defense capacities.

Recently concern has been raised about health effects related to environmental sulfur and/or acidic aerosols. To assess long-term effects on respiratory lung function, 8 beagle dogs were exposed over a period of 13 mo for 16.5 h/day to 1.0 microm neutral sulfite aerosol with a particle associated sulfur(IV) concentration of 0.32 mg m(-3) and for 6 h/day to 1.1 microm acidic sulfate aerosol providing an hydrogen ion concentration of 15.2 micromol m(-3) for inhalation. Prior to exposure the dogs were kept under clean air conditions for 16 mo to establish physiological baseline values for each dog. A second group of eight dogs (control) was kept for the entire study under clean air conditions. Nonspecific defense mechanisms in the airways and in the peripheral lung were studied during chronic exposure of the combination of neutral sulfur(IV) and acidic sulfur(VI) aerosols. No functional changes of tracheal mucus velocity were found, in agreement with unchanged morphometry of the airways. However, the exposure resulted in changes of several alveolar macrophage (AM) mediated particle clearance mechanisms: (1) Based on in vivo clearance analysis and cultured AM studies using moderately soluble cobalt oxide particles, intracellular particle dissolution was significantly reduced since phagolysosomal proton concentration was decreased. We deduce exposure-related malfunction of proton pumps bound to the phagolysosomal membrane as a result of an increase of cytosolic proton concentration. (2) Based on in vivo clearance analysis using insoluble polystyrene particles, AM-mediated particle transport from the lung periphery toward ciliated terminal bronchioli and further to the larynx was significantly reduced. Activation of epithelial type II cells at the entrance of alveoli was inferred from observed type II cell proliferation at those alveolar ridges and enhanced secretion of alkaline phosphatase in the fluid of bronchoalveolar lavages. As a result, hypersecretion of chemotactic mediators by activated type II cells at these loci led to the observed decrease of particle transport toward ciliated bronchioli. (3) Based on in vivo clearance analysis using insoluble polystyrene particles, particle transport from the alveolar epithelium into interstitial tissues was increased and (4) particle transport to the tracheobronchial lymph nodes was significantly enhanced. Particle transport into interstitial tissues is the most prominent clearance pathway from the canine alveolar epithelium. We conclude that the deteriorated particle transport toward ciliated terminal bronchioli resulted in an enhanced particle transport across the epithelial membrane into interstitial tissues and the lymphatic drainage. The observed alterations in alveolar macrophage-mediated clearance mechanisms during chronic exposure of these air pollutants indicate an increased risk of health.

Health effects of sulfur-related environmental air pollution. II. Cellular and molecular parameters of injury.

Recently, concern has been raised about effects related to environmental sulfur and/or acidic aerosols. To assess long-term effects on nonrespiratory lung function, 8 beagle dogs were exposed over a period of 13 mo for 16.5 h/day to a neutral sulfite aerosol at a sulfur(IV) concentration of 0.32 mg m(-3) and for 6 h/day to an acidic sulfate aerosol providing a hydrogen concentration of 15.2 micromol m(-3) for inhalation. Prior to exposure the dogs were kept under clean air conditions for 16 mo to establish physiological baseline values for each animal. A second group of eight dogs (control) was kept for the entire study under clean air conditions. No clinical symptoms were identified that could be related to the combined exposure. Biochemical and cellular parameters were analyzed in sequential bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluids. The permeability of the alveolo-capillary membrane and diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) clearance was not affected. Similarly, oxidant burden of the epithelial lining fluid evaluated by levels of oxidation products in the BAL fluid protein fraction remained unchanged. Both the lysosomal enzyme beta-N-acetylglucosaminidase and the alpha-1-AT were increased (p <.05). In contrast, the cytoplasmic marker lactate dehydrogenase remained unchanged, indicating the absence of severe damages to epithelial cells or phagocytes. Various surfactant functions were not altered during exposure. Three animals showed elevated levels of the type II cell-associated alkaline phosphatase (AP), indicating a nonuniform response of type II cells. Significant correlations were found between AP and total BAL protein, but not between AP and lactate dehydrogenase, suggesting proliferation of alveolar type II cells. Absolute and relative cell counts in the BAL fluid were not influenced by exposure. Alveolar macrophages showed no alterations with regard to their respiratory burst upon stimulation with opsonized zymosan. The percentage of alveolar macrophages capable of phagocytozing latex particles was significantly decreased (p<.05), while the phagocytosis index was not altered. In view of the results of this and previous studies, we conclude that there is no synergism of effects of these two air pollutants on nonrespiratory lung functions. It is hypothesized that antagonistic effects of these air pollutants on phospholipase A2-dependent pathways account for compensatory physiological mechanisms. The results emphasize the complexity of health effects on lung functions in response to the complex mixture of air pollutants and disclose the precariousness in the risk assessment of air pollutants for humans.

Health effects of sulfur-related environmental air pollution. I. Executive summary.

The motivation of simulating real-world environmental exposure in a number of long-term studies with dogs was to address the question of whether or not perpetual inhalation of air pollutants can initiate diseases in healthy lungs and can thus contribute to the increasing prevalence of respiratory diseases in industrialized countries. The major conclusion of this article is that this question has to be answered in the negative for the simultaneous inhalation of the major constituents of combustion-related air pollution, particle-associated sulfur(IV), and particle-associated hydrogen ions. Over 13 mo, 8 healthy beagle dogs were exposed in 2 whole-body chambers daily for 16.5 h to 1 microm neutral sulfite [sulfur(IV)] particles at a mass concentration of 1.5 mg m-3 and for 6 h to 1.1 microm acidic sulfate particles carrying 15 micromol m-3 hydrogen ions into the canine lungs. This longitudinal study was characterized by repeated observations of individual respiratory response patterns. To establish baseline data the dogs were repeatedly examined preexposure while the chambers were ventilated over 16 mo with clean air. Each individual served thus as its own control. Another eight dogs served as additional controls. They were housed in 2 chambers ventilated with clean air over the entire study period of 29 mo. To assess response patterns, respiratory lung function tests were performed pre- and postexposure, segmental lung lavages were repeatedly performed to obtain epithelial lining fluid from the lungs for analysis of cell content, cell function, and biochemical indicators of lung injury, and radiolabeled test particles were used to study pathways of intrapulmonary particle elimination. At the end of the study, the lungs of all animals were morphologically and morphometrically examined. Functional and structural responses were finally compared to those observed previously as a result of a sole exposure of canine lungs to neutral sulfite particles over 10 mo (Heyder et al., 1992). Interactions between responses induced by neutral sulfite and acidic sulfate particles occurred, but antagonism rather than synergism was observed. The responses induced by sulfur(IV) were less pronounced, not detectable, or even reversed when hydrogen ions were also delivered to the lungs. On the other hand, responses not induced by the sole exposure to sulfur(IV) were observed: The activity of alkaline phosphatase was elevated and type II pneumocytes proliferated. It can, however, be concluded that long-term exposure of healthy lungs to particle-associated neutral sulfur(IV) and hydrogen ions at concentration close to ambient levels causes subtle respiratory responses but does not initiate pathological processes in the lungs. In other words, the perpetual inhalation of sulfur(IV) and hydrogen ions from the atmospheric environment presents no health risk to the healthy lungs. It is thus also very unlikely that respiratory diseases can be initiated by the inhalation of these pollutants.