Amplification-free detection of SARS-CoV-2 with CRISPR-Cas13a and mobile phone microscopy.

The December 2019 outbreak of a novel respiratory virus, SARS-CoV-2, has become an ongoing global pandemic due in part to the challenge of identifying symptomatic, asymptomatic, and pre-symptomatic carriers of the virus. CRISPR diagnostics can augment gold-standard PCR-based testing if they can be made rapid, portable, and accurate. Here, we report the development of an amplification-free CRISPR-Cas13a assay for direct detection of SARS-CoV-2 from nasal swab RNA that can be read with a mobile phone microscope. The assay achieved ∼100 copies/µL sensitivity in under 30 min of measurement time and accurately detected pre-extracted RNA from a set of positive clinical samples in under 5 min. We combined crRNAs targeting SARS-CoV-2 RNA to improve sensitivity and specificity and directly quantified viral load using enzyme kinetics. Integrated with a reader device based on a mobile phone, this assay has the potential to enable rapid, low-cost, point-of-care screening for SARS-CoV-2.

Discovery and Genomic Characterization of a Novel Henipavirus, Angavokely Virus, from Fruit Bats in Madagascar.

The genus Henipavirus (family Paramyxoviridae) currently comprises seven viruses, four of which have demonstrated prior evidence of zoonotic capacity. These include the biosafety level 4 agents Hendra (HeV) and Nipah (NiV) viruses, which circulate naturally in pteropodid fruit bats. Here, we describe and characterize Angavokely virus (AngV), a divergent henipavirus identified in urine samples from wild, Madagascar fruit bats. We report the nearly complete 16,740-nucleotide genome of AngV, which encodes the six major henipavirus structural proteins (nucleocapsid, phosphoprotein, matrix, fusion, glycoprotein, and L polymerase). Within the phosphoprotein (P) gene, we identify an alternative start codon encoding the AngV C protein and a putative mRNA editing site where the insertion of one or two guanine residues encodes, respectively, additional V and W proteins. In other paramyxovirus systems, C, V, and W are accessory proteins involved in antagonism of host immune responses during infection. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that AngV is ancestral to all four previously described bat henipaviruses-HeV, NiV, Cedar virus (CedV), and Ghanaian bat virus (GhV)-but evolved more recently than rodent- and shrew-derived henipaviruses, Mojiang (MojV), Gamak (GAKV), and Daeryong (DARV) viruses. Predictive structure-based alignments suggest that AngV is unlikely to bind ephrin receptors, which mediate cell entry for all other known bat henipaviruses. Identification of the AngV receptor is needed to clarify the virus's potential host range. The presence of V and W proteins in the AngV genome suggest that the virus could be pathogenic following zoonotic spillover. IMPORTANCE Henipaviruses include highly pathogenic emerging zoonotic viruses, derived from bat, rodent, and shrew reservoirs. Bat-borne Hendra (HeV) and Nipah (NiV) are the most well-known henipaviruses, for which no effective antivirals or vaccines for humans have been described. Here, we report the discovery and characterization of a novel henipavirus, Angavokely virus (AngV), isolated from wild fruit bats in Madagascar. Genomic characterization of AngV reveals all major features associated with pathogenicity in other henipaviruses, suggesting that AngV could be pathogenic following spillover to human hosts. Our work suggests that AngV is an ancestral bat henipavirus that likely uses viral entry pathways distinct from those previously described for HeV and NiV. In Madagascar, bats are consumed as a source of human food, presenting opportunities for cross-species transmission. Characterization of novel henipaviruses and documentation of their pathogenic and zoonotic potential are essential to predicting and preventing the emergence of future zoonoses that cause pandemics.

Genomic Epidemiology and Transmission Dynamics of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in Congregate Healthcare Facilities in Santa Clara County, California.

BACKGROUND: Outbreaks of SARS-CoV-2 in long-term care facilities (LTCFs) cause significant morbidity and mortality. Mapping viral transmission within and between facilities by combining genomic sequencing with epidemiologic investigations enables targeting infection-control interventions. METHODS: We conducted weekly surveillance of residents and staff in LTCFs in Santa Clara County, California, with ≥1 confirmed COVID-19 case between March and July 2020. Positive samples were referred for whole-genome sequencing. Epidemiological investigations and phylogenetic analyses of the largest outbreaks (>30 cases) were carried out in 6 LTCFs (Facilities A through F). RESULTS: Among the 61 LTCFs in the county, 41 had ≥1 confirmed case during the study period, triggering weekly SARS-CoV-2 testing. The 6 largest outbreaks accounted for 60% of cases and 90% of deaths in LTCFs, although the bed capacity of these facilities represents only 11% of the LTCF beds in the county. Phylogenetic analysis of 196 whole-genome sequences recovered from those facilities showed that each outbreak was monophyletic, with staff and residents sharing a common viral lineage. Outbreak investigations revealed that infected staff members often worked at multiple facilities, and in 1 instance, a staff member infected while working in 1 facility was the likely index case in another. CONCLUSIONS: We detected a pattern of rapid and sustained transmission after a single introduction of SARS-CoV-2 in 6 large LTCF outbreaks, with staff playing a key role in transmission within and between facilities. Infection control, testing, and occupational policies to reduce exposure and transmission risk for staff are essential components to keeping facility residents safe.

Estimation of Secondary Household Attack Rates for Emergent Spike L452R Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Variants Detected by Genomic Surveillance at a Community-Based Testing Site in San Francisco.

BACKGROUND: Sequencing of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) viral genome from patient samples is an important epidemiological tool for monitoring and responding to the pandemic, including the emergence of new mutations in specific communities. METHODS: SARS-CoV-2 genomic sequences were generated from positive samples collected, along with epidemiological metadata, at a walk-up, rapid testing site in the Mission District of San Francisco, California during 22 November to 1 December, 2020, and 10-29 January 2021. Secondary household attack rates and mean sample viral load were estimated and compared across observed variants. RESULTS: A total of 12 124 tests were performed yielding 1099 positives. From these, 928 high-quality genomes were generated. Certain viral lineages bearing spike mutations, defined in part by L452R, S13I, and W152C, comprised 54.4% of the total sequences from January, compared to 15.7% in November. Household contacts exposed to the "California" or "West Coast" variants (B.1.427 and B.1.429) were at higher risk of infection compared to household contacts exposed to lineages lacking these variants (0.36 vs 0.29, risk ratio [RR] = 1.28; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.00-1.64). The reproductive number was estimated to be modestly higher than other lineages spreading in California during the second half of 2020. Viral loads were similar among persons infected with West Coast versus non-West Coast strains, as was the proportion of individuals with symptoms (60.9% vs 64.3%). CONCLUSIONS: The increase in prevalence, relative household attack rates, and reproductive number are consistent with a modest transmissibility increase of the West Coast variants. Summary: We observed a growing prevalence and modestly elevated attack rate for "West Coast" severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants in a community testing setting in San Francisco during January 2021, suggesting its modestly higher transmissibility.

Using genomic epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 to support contact tracing and public health surveillance in rural Humboldt County, California.

BACKGROUND: During the COVID-19 pandemic within the United States, much of the responsibility for diagnostic testing and epidemiologic response has relied on the action of county-level departments of public health. Here we describe the integration of genomic surveillance into epidemiologic response within Humboldt County, a rural county in northwest California. METHODS: Through a collaborative effort, 853 whole SARS-CoV-2 genomes were generated, representing ~58% of the 1,449 SARS-CoV-2-positive cases detected in Humboldt County as of March 12, 2021. Phylogenetic analysis of these data was used to develop a comprehensive understanding of SARS-CoV-2 introductions to the county and to support contact tracing and epidemiologic investigations of all large outbreaks in the county. RESULTS: In the case of an outbreak on a commercial farm, viral genomic data were used to validate reported epidemiologic links and link additional cases within the community who did not report a farm exposure to the outbreak. During a separate outbreak within a skilled nursing facility, genomic surveillance data were used to rule out the putative index case, detect the emergence of an independent Spike:N501Y substitution, and verify that the outbreak had been brought under control. CONCLUSIONS: These use cases demonstrate how developing genomic surveillance capacity within local public health departments can support timely and responsive deployment of genomic epidemiology for surveillance and outbreak response based on local needs and priorities.

Community Transmission of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Disproportionately Affects the Latinx Population During Shelter-in-Place in San Francisco.

BACKGROUND: There is an urgent need to understand the dynamics and risk factors driving ongoing severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) transmission during shelter-in-place mandates. METHODS: We offered SARS-CoV-2 reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and antibody (Abbott ARCHITECT IgG) testing, regardless of symptoms, to all residents (aged ≥4 years) and workers in a San Francisco census tract (population: 5174) at outdoor, community-mobilized events over 4 days. We estimated SARS-CoV-2 point prevalence (PCR positive) and cumulative incidence (antibody or PCR positive) in the census tract and evaluated risk factors for recent (PCR positive/antibody negative) vs prior infection (antibody positive/PCR negative). SARS-CoV-2 genome recovery and phylogenetics were used to measure viral strain diversity, establish viral lineages present, and estimate number of introductions. RESULTS: We tested 3953 persons (40% Latinx; 41% White; 9% Asian/Pacific Islander; and 2% Black). Overall, 2.1% (83/3871) tested PCR positive: 95% were Latinx and 52% were asymptomatic when tested; 1.7% of census tract residents and 6.0% of workers (non-census tract residents) were PCR positive. Among 2598 tract residents, estimated point prevalence of PCR positives was 2.3% (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.2%-3.8%): 3.9% (95% CI, 2.0%-6.4%) among Latinx persons vs 0.2% (95% CI, .0-.4%) among non-Latinx persons. Estimated cumulative incidence among residents was 6.1% (95% CI, 4.0%-8.6%). Prior infections were 67% Latinx, 16% White, and 17% other ethnicities. Among recent infections, 96% were Latinx. Risk factors for recent infection were Latinx ethnicity, inability to shelter in place and maintain income, frontline service work, unemployment, and household income <$50 000/year. Five SARS-CoV-2 phylogenetic lineages were detected. CONCLUSIONS: SARS-CoV-2 infections from diverse lineages continued circulating among low-income, Latinx persons unable to work from home and maintain income during San Francisco's shelter-in-place ordinance.

JC polyoma viruria associates with protection from chronic kidney disease independently from apolipoprotein L1 genotype in African Americans.

Background: Viral infections can trigger chronic kidney disease (CKD) and the urine virome may inform risk. The Natural History of APOL1-Associated Nephropathy Study (NHAANS) reported that urine JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) associated with a lower risk of APOL1-associated nephropathy in African Americans. Herein, association was assessed between urine JCPyV with CKD in African Americans independent from the APOL1 genotype. Methods: Quantitative polymerase chain reaction was performed for urinary detection of JCPyV and BK polyoma virus (BKPyV) in 200 newly recruited nondiabetic African Americans. A combined analysis was performed in these individuals plus 300 NHAANS participants. Results: In the 200 new participants, urine JCPyV was present in 8.8% of CKD cases and 45.8% of nonnephropathy controls (P = 3.0 × 10-8). In those with APOL1 renal-risk genotypes, JCPyV was detected in 5.1% of cases and 40.0% of controls (P = 0.0002). In those lacking APOL1 renal-risk genotypes, JCPyV was detected in 12.2% of cases and 48.8% of controls (P = 8.5 × 10-5). BKPyV was detected in 1.3% of cases and 0.8% of controls (P = 0.77). In a combined analysis with 300 NHAANS participants (n = 500), individuals with urine JCPyV had a 63% lower risk of CKD compared with those without urine JCPyV (odds ratio 0.37; P = 4.6 × 10-6). RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization confirmed the presence of JCPyV genomic DNA and JCPyV messenger RNA (mRNA) in nondiseased kidney. Conclusions: Inverse relationships exist between JCPyV viruria and non-diabetic CKD. Future studies should determine whether renal inflammation associated with CKD is less permissive for JCPyV reactivation/replication or whether JCPyV is a marker of reduced host immune responsiveness that diminishes immune pathologic contributions to CKD.

Identification of a previously undescribed divergent virus from the Flaviviridae family in an outbreak of equine serum hepatitis.

Theiler's disease is an acute hepatitis in horses that is associated with the administration of equine blood products; its etiologic agent has remained unknown for nearly a century. Here, we used massively parallel sequencing to explore samples from a recent Theiler's disease outbreak. Metatranscriptomic analysis of the short sequence reads identified a 10.5-kb sequence from a previously undescribed virus of the Flaviviridae family, which we designate "Theiler's disease-associated virus" (TDAV). Phylogenetic analysis clusters TDAV with GB viruses of the recently proposed Pegivirus genus, although it shares only 35.3% amino acid identity with its closest relative, GB virus D. An epidemiological survey of additional horses from three separate locations supports an association between TDAV infection and acute serum hepatitis. Experimental inoculation of horses with TDAV-positive plasma provides evidence that several weeks of viremia preceded liver injury and that liver disease may not be directly related to the level of viremia. Like hepatitis C virus, the best characterized Flaviviridae species known to cause hepatitis, we find TDAV is capable of efficient parenteral transmission, engendering acute and chronic infections associated with a diversity of clinical presentations ranging from subclinical infection to clinical hepatitis.

Metatranscriptomic investigation of single Ixodes pacificus ticks reveals diverse microbes, viruses, and novel mRNA-like endogenous viral elements.

Ticks are increasingly important vectors of human and agricultural diseases. While many studies have focused on tick-borne bacteria, far less is known about tick-associated viruses and their roles in public health or tick physiology. To address this, we investigated patterns of bacterial and viral communities across two field populations of western black-legged ticks (Ixodes pacificus). Through metatranscriptomic analysis of 100 individual ticks, we quantified taxon prevalence, abundance, and co-occurrence with other members of the tick microbiome. In addition to commonly found tick-associated microbes, we assembled 11 novel RNA virus genomes from Rhabdoviridae, Chuviridae, Picornaviridae, Phenuiviridae, Reoviridae, Solemovidiae, Narnaviridae and two highly divergent RNA virus genomes lacking sequence similarity to any known viral families. We experimentally verified the presence of these in I. pacificus ticks across several life stages. We also unexpectedly identified numerous virus-like transcripts that are likely encoded by tick genomic DNA, and which are distinct from known endogenous viral element-mediated immunity pathways in invertebrates. Taken together, our work reveals that I. pacificus ticks carry a greater diversity of viruses than previously appreciated, in some cases resulting in evolutionarily acquired virus-like transcripts. Our findings highlight how pervasive and intimate tick-virus interactions are, with major implications for both the fundamental biology and vectorial capacity of I. pacificus ticks. IMPORTANCE: Ticks are increasingly important vectors of disease, particularly in the United States where expanding tick ranges and intrusion into previously wild areas has resulted in increasing human exposure to ticks. Emerging human pathogens have been identified in ticks at an increasing rate, and yet little is known about the full community of microbes circulating in various tick species, a crucial first step to understanding how they interact with each and their tick host, as well as their ability to cause disease in humans. We investigated the bacterial and viral communities of the Western blacklegged tick in California and found 11 previously uncharacterized viruses circulating in this population.

A 2-Gene Host Signature for Improved Accuracy of COVID-19 Diagnosis Agnostic to Viral Variants.

The continued emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants is one of several factors that may cause false-negative viral PCR test results. Such tests are also susceptible to false-positive results due to trace contamination from high viral titer samples. Host immune response markers provide an orthogonal indication of infection that can mitigate these concerns when combined with direct viral detection. Here, we leverage nasopharyngeal swab RNA-seq data from patients with COVID-19, other viral acute respiratory illnesses, and nonviral conditions (n = 318) to develop support vector machine classifiers that rely on a parsimonious 2-gene host signature to diagnose COVID-19. We find that optimal classifiers include an interferon-stimulated gene that is strongly induced in COVID-19 compared with nonviral conditions, such as IFI6, and a second immune-response gene that is more strongly induced in other viral infections, such as GBP5. The IFI6+GBP5 classifier achieves an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) greater than 0.9 when evaluated on an independent RNA-seq cohort (n = 553). We further provide proof-of-concept demonstration that the classifier can be implemented in a clinically relevant RT-qPCR assay. Finally, we show that its performance is robust across common SARS-CoV-2 variants and is unaffected by cross-contamination, demonstrating its utility for improved accuracy of COVID-19 diagnostics. IMPORTANCE In this work, we study upper respiratory tract gene expression to develop and validate a 2-gene host-based COVID-19 diagnostic classifier and then demonstrate its implementation in a clinically practical qPCR assay. We find that the host classifier has utility for mitigating false-negative results, for example due to SARS-CoV-2 variants harboring mutations at primer target sites, and for mitigating false-positive viral PCR results due to laboratory cross-contamination. Both types of error carry serious consequences of either unrecognized viral transmission or unnecessary isolation and contact tracing. This work is directly relevant to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic given the continued emergence of viral variants and the continued challenges of false-positive PCR assays. It also suggests the feasibility of pan-respiratory virus host-based diagnostics that would have value in congregate settings, such as hospitals and nursing homes, where unrecognized respiratory viral transmission is of particular concern.

Detection, characterization, and phylogenetic analysis of a near-whole genome sequence of a novel astrovirus in an endemic Malagasy fruit bat, Rousettus madagascariensis.

Bats (order: Chiroptera ) are known to host a diverse range of viruses, some of which present a public health risk. Thorough viral surveillance is therefore essential to predict and potentially mitigate zoonotic spillover. Astroviruses (family: Astroviridae ) are an understudied group of viruses with a growing amount of indirect evidence for zoonotic transfer. Astroviruses have been detected in bats with significant prevalence and diversity, suggesting that bats may act as important astrovirus hosts. Most astrovirus surveillance in wild bat hosts has, to date, been restricted to single-gene PCR detection and concomitant Sanger sequencing; additionally, many bat species and many geographic regions have not yet been surveyed for astroviruses at all. Here, we use metagenomic Next Generation Sequencing (mNGS) to detect astroviruses in three species of Madagascar fruit bats, Eidolon dupreanum, Pteropus rufus, and Rousettus madagascariensis . We detect numerous partial sequences from all three species and one near-full length astrovirus sequence from Rousettus madagascariensis , which we use to characterize the evolutionary history of astroviruses both within bats and the broader mammalian clade, Mamastrovirus . Taken together, applications of mNGS implicate bats as important astrovirus hosts and demonstrate novel patterns of bat astrovirus evolutionary history, particularly in the Southwest Indian Ocean region.

Quantitative reverse transcription PCR assay to detect a genetic marker of pyrethroid resistance in Culex mosquitoes.

Pyrethroid insecticides are widely used to control mosquitoes that transmit pathogens such as West Nile virus (WNV) to people. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in the knockdown resistance locus (kdr) of the voltage gated sodium channel (Vgsc) gene in Culex mosquitoes are associated with knockdown resistance to pyrethroids. RNAseq was used to sequence the coding region of Vgsc for Culex tarsalis Coquillett and Culex erythrothorax Dyar, two WNV vectors. The cDNA sequences were used to develop a quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR assay that detects the L1014F kdr mutation in the Vgsc. Because this locus is conserved, the assay was used successfully in six Culex spp. The resulting Culex RTkdr assay was validated using quantitative PCR and sequencing of PCR products. The accuracy of the Culex RTkdr assay was 99%. The L1014F kdr mutation associated with pyrethroid resistance was more common among Cx. pipiens than other Culex spp. and was more prevalent in mosquitoes collected near farmland. The Culex RTkdr assay takes advantage of the RNA that vector control agencies routinely isolate to assess arbovirus prevalence in mosquitoes. We anticipate that public health and vector control agencies may employ the Culex RTkdr assay to define the geographic distribution of the L1014F kdr mutation in Culex species and improve the monitoring of insecticide resistance that will ultimately contribute to effective control of Culex mosquitoes.

Full Genome Nobecovirus Sequences From Malagasy Fruit Bats Define a Unique Evolutionary History for This Coronavirus Clade.

Bats are natural reservoirs for both Alpha- and Betacoronaviruses and the hypothesized original hosts of five of seven known zoonotic coronaviruses. To date, the vast majority of bat coronavirus research has been concentrated in Asia, though coronaviruses are globally distributed; indeed, SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2-related Betacoronaviruses in the subgenus Sarbecovirus have been identified circulating in Rhinolophid bats in both Africa and Europe, despite the relative dearth of surveillance in these regions. As part of a long-term study examining the dynamics of potentially zoonotic viruses in three species of endemic Madagascar fruit bat (Pteropus rufus, Eidolon dupreanum, Rousettus madagascariensis), we carried out metagenomic Next Generation Sequencing (mNGS) on urine, throat, and fecal samples obtained from wild-caught individuals. We report detection of RNA derived from Betacoronavirus subgenus Nobecovirus in fecal samples from all three species and describe full genome sequences of novel Nobecoviruses in P. rufus and R. madagascariensis. Phylogenetic analysis indicates the existence of five distinct Nobecovirus clades, one of which is defined by the highly divergent ancestral sequence reported here from P. rufus bats. Madagascar Nobecoviruses derived from P. rufus and R. madagascariensis demonstrate, respectively, Asian and African phylogeographic origins, mirroring those of their fruit bat hosts. Bootscan recombination analysis indicates significant selection has taken place in the spike, nucleocapsid, and NS7 accessory protein regions of the genome for viruses derived from both bat hosts. Madagascar offers a unique phylogeographic nexus of bats and viruses with both Asian and African phylogeographic origins, providing opportunities for unprecedented mixing of viral groups and, potentially, recombination. As fruit bats are handled and consumed widely across Madagascar for subsistence, understanding the landscape of potentially zoonotic coronavirus circulation is essential for mitigation of future zoonotic threats.

Upper airway gene expression shows a more robust adaptive immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in children.

Unlike other respiratory viruses, SARS-CoV-2 disproportionately causes severe disease in older adults whereas disease burden in children is lower. To investigate whether differences in the upper airway immune response may contribute to this disparity, we compare nasopharyngeal gene expression in 83 children (<19-years-old; 38 with SARS-CoV-2, 11 with other respiratory viruses, 34 with no virus) and 154 older adults (>40-years-old; 45 with SARS-CoV-2, 28 with other respiratory viruses, 81 with no virus). Expression of interferon-stimulated genes is robustly activated in both children and adults with SARS-CoV-2 infection compared to the respective non-viral groups, with only subtle distinctions. Children, however, demonstrate markedly greater upregulation of pathways related to B cell and T cell activation and proinflammatory cytokine signaling, including response to TNF and production of IFNγ, IL-2 and IL-4. Cell type deconvolution confirms greater recruitment of B cells, and to a lesser degree macrophages, to the upper airway of children. Only children exhibit a decrease in proportions of ciliated cells, among the primary targets of SARS-CoV-2, upon infection. These findings demonstrate that children elicit a more robust innate and especially adaptive immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in the upper airway that likely contributes to their protection from severe disease in the lower airway.

Anti-nucleocapsid antibody levels and pulmonary comorbid conditions are linked to post-COVID-19 syndrome.

BACKGROUNDProlonged symptoms after SARS-CoV-2 infection are well documented. However, which factors influence development of long-term symptoms, how symptoms vary across ethnic groups, and whether long-term symptoms correlate with biomarkers are points that remain elusive.METHODSAdult SARS-CoV-2 reverse transcription PCR-positive (RT-PCR-positive) patients were recruited at Stanford from March 2020 to February 2021. Study participants were seen for in-person visits at diagnosis and every 1-3 months for up to 1 year after diagnosis; they completed symptom surveys and underwent blood draws and nasal swab collections at each visit.RESULTSOur cohort (n = 617) ranged from asymptomatic to critical COVID-19 infections. In total, 40% of participants reported at least 1 symptom associated with COVID-19 six months after diagnosis. Median time from diagnosis to first resolution of all symptoms was 44 days; median time from diagnosis to sustained symptom resolution with no recurring symptoms for 1 month or longer was 214 days. Anti-nucleocapsid IgG level in the first week after positive RT-PCR test and history of lung disease were associated with time to sustained symptom resolution. COVID-19 disease severity, ethnicity, age, sex, and remdesivir use did not affect time to sustained symptom resolution.CONCLUSIONWe found that all disease severities had a similar risk of developing post-COVID-19 syndrome in an ethnically diverse population. Comorbid lung disease and lower levels of initial IgG response to SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid antigen were associated with longer symptom duration.TRIAL REGISTRATIONClinicalTrials.gov, NCT04373148.FUNDINGNIH UL1TR003142 CTSA grant, NIH U54CA260517 grant, NIEHS R21 ES03304901, Sean N Parker Center for Allergy and Asthma Research at Stanford University, Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, Chan Zuckerberg Initiative, Sunshine Foundation, Crown Foundation, and Parker Foundation.

Analysis of naturally occurring avian bornavirus infection and transmission during an outbreak of proventricular dilatation disease among captive psittacine birds.

A proventricular dilatation disease (PDD) outbreak provided the opportunity to investigate the transmissibility of avian Bornavirus (ABV) and its linkage to PDD under natural conditions. Upon exposure to a bird with a fatal case of PDD, 10 birds became symptomatic and died. ABV2 RNA was recovered from available tissues. Further screening revealed that 12/46 exposed birds were ABV2(+). Three chicks boarded at this aviary developed PDD. They harbored the same ABV2 isolate and transmitted it to five of eight chicks in their home aviary. These findings demonstrate that ABV infection precedes the development of PDD. ABV-specific Western blotting and reverse transcription-PCR indicate that ABV2 is not strictly neurotropic.

Single mosquito metatranscriptomics identifies vectors, emerging pathogens and reservoirs in one assay.

Mosquitoes are major infectious disease-carrying vectors. Assessment of current and future risks associated with the mosquito population requires knowledge of the full repertoire of pathogens they carry, including novel viruses, as well as their blood meal sources. Unbiased metatranscriptomic sequencing of individual mosquitoes offers a straightforward, rapid, and quantitative means to acquire this information. Here, we profile 148 diverse wild-caught mosquitoes collected in California and detect sequences from eukaryotes, prokaryotes, 24 known and 46 novel viral species. Importantly, sequencing individuals greatly enhanced the value of the biological information obtained. It allowed us to (a) speciate host mosquito, (b) compute the prevalence of each microbe and recognize a high frequency of viral co-infections, (c) associate animal pathogens with specific blood meal sources, and (d) apply simple co-occurrence methods to recover previously undetected components of highly prevalent segmented viruses. In the context of emerging diseases, where knowledge about vectors, pathogens, and reservoirs is lacking, the approaches described here can provide actionable information for public health surveillance and intervention decisions.

Upper airway gene expression reveals a more robust innate and adaptive immune response to SARS-CoV-2 in children compared with older adults.

Unlike other respiratory viruses, SARS-CoV-2 disproportionately causes severe disease in older adults and only rarely in children. To investigate whether differences in the upper airway immune response could contribute to this disparity, we compared nasopharyngeal gene expression in 83 children (<19-years-old; 38 with SARS-CoV-2, 11 with other respiratory viruses, 34 with no virus) and 154 adults (>40-years-old; 45 with SARS-CoV-2, 28 with other respiratory viruses, 81 with no virus). Expression of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) was robustly activated in both children and adults with SARS-CoV-2 compared to the respective non-viral groups, with only relatively subtle distinctions. Children, however, demonstrated markedly greater upregulation of pathways related to B cell and T cell activation and proinflammatory cytokine signaling, including TNF, IFNγ, IL-2 and IL-4 production. Cell type deconvolution confirmed greater recruitment of B cells, and to a lesser degree macrophages, to the upper airway of children. Only children exhibited a decrease in proportions of ciliated cells, the primary target of SARS-CoV-2, upon infection with the virus. These findings demonstrate that children elicit a more robust innate and adaptive immune response to SARS-CoV-2 infection in the upper airway that likely contributes to their protection from severe disease in the lower airway.

SARS-CoV-2 Infection of Rhesus Macaques Treated Early with Human COVID-19 Convalescent Plasma.

Human clinical studies investigating use of convalescent plasma (CP) for treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) have produced conflicting results. Outcomes in these studies may vary at least partly due to different timing of CP administration relative to symptom onset. The mechanisms of action of CP include neutralizing antibodies but may extend beyond virus neutralization to include normalization of blood clotting and dampening of inflammation. Unresolved questions include the minimum therapeutic titer in the CP units or CP recipient as well as the optimal timing of administration. Here, we show that treatment of macaques with CP within 24 h of infection does not reduce viral shedding in nasal or lung secretions compared to controls and does not detectably improve any clinical endpoint. We also demonstrate that CP administration does not impact viral sequence diversity in vivo, although the selection of a viral sequence variant in both macaques receiving normal human plasma was suggestive of immune pressure. Our results suggest that CP, administered to medium titers, has limited efficacy, even when given very early after infection. Our findings also contribute information important for the continued development of the nonhuman primate model of COVID-19. These results should inform interpretation of clinical studies of CP in addition to providing insights useful for developing other passive immunotherapies and vaccine strategies. IMPORTANCE Antiviral treatment options for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) remain very limited. One treatment that was explored beginning early in the pandemic (and that is likely to be tested early in future pandemics) is plasma collected from people who have recovered from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), known as convalescent plasma (CP). We tested if CP reduces viral shedding or disease in a nonhuman primate model. Our results demonstrate that administration of CP 1 day after SARS-CoV-2 infection had no significant impact on viral loads, clinical disease, or sequence diversity, although treatment with normal human plasma resulted in selection of a specific viral variant. Our results demonstrate that passive immunization with CP, even during early infection, provided no significant benefit in a nonhuman primate model of SARS-CoV-2 infection.