Impact of Pyrolysis Temperature and Feedstock on Surface Charge and Functional Group Chemistry of Biochars.

The capacity of biochars to adsorb ionic contaminants is strongly influenced by biochar surface chemistry. We studied the effects of biomass feedstock type, pyrolysis temperature, reaction media pH, and AlCl pre-pyrolysis feedstock treatments on biochar anion exchange capacity (AEC), cation exchange capacity (CEC), point of zero net charge (PZNC), and point of zero salt effect (PZSE). We used the relationship between PZNC and PZSE to probe biochar surfaces for the presence of unstable (hydrolyzable) surface charge functional groups. The results indicate that biochars produced at ≤500°C have high CECs and low AEC, PZSE, and PZNC values due to the dominance of negative surface charge arising from carboxylate and phenolate functional groups. Biochars produced at ≥700°C have low CEC and high AEC, PZSE, and PZNC values, consistent with a dominance of positive surface charge arising from nonhydrolyzable bridging oxonium (oxygen heterocycles) groups. However, biochars produced at moderate temperatures (500-700°C) have high PZSE and low PZNC values, indicating the presence of nonbridging oxonium groups, which are rapidly degraded under alkaline conditions by OH attack on the oxonium α-C. Biochars treated with AlCl have high AEC, PZSE, and PZNC values due to variably charged aluminol groups on biochar surfaces. The results provide support for the presence of both hydrolyzable and nonhydrolyzable oxonium groups on biochar surfaces. They also demonstrate that biochars produced at high pyrolysis temperatures (>700°C) or those receiving pre-pyrolysis treatments with AlCl are optimized for anionic contaminant adsorption, whereas biochars produced at low pyrolysis temperatures (400°C) are optimized for cationic contaminant adsorption.

Impact of Biochar Organic and Inorganic Carbon on Soil CO2 and N2O Emissions.

Biochar has been shown to influence soil CO and NO emissions following application to soil, but the presence of carbonates in biochars has largely confounded efforts to differentiate among labile and recalcitrant C pools in biochar and establish their timeframe of influence. Understanding the mechanism, magnitude, and duration of biochar C pools' influence on C and N dynamics is imperative to successful implementation of biochar for C sequestration. Here we therefore aim to assess biochar organic and inorganic C pool impacts on CO and NO emissions from soil amended with two untreated biochars, inorganic carbon (as NaCO), acid (HCl) and bicarbonate (NaHCO) extracts of the biochars, and acid and bicarbonate/acid-washed biochars during a 140-d soil incubation. We hypothesized that (i) both biochar labile organic carbon (LOC) and inorganic carbon (IC) pools contribute significantly to short-term (<1 mo) CO emissions from biochar-amended soil, (ii) biochars will influence the size of soil NH and NO pools, and (iii) changes in soil inorganic N pools will affect soil NO emissions. All biochar, biochar extract, and carbonate treatments (12 total) increased CO produced during the initial ≤48 h of the incubation relative to controls, indicating that both biochar LOC and IC contribute to CO emissions. Of these treatments, only bicarbonate extracts of the biochars increased total C losses significantly. However, treatment impacts on soil NO production were not significant despite significant effects of select treatments on inorganic N pools. Overall, results indicate that biochars contain small LOC and IC pools that are stabilized by a larger recalcitrant organic C pool.

Comparison of the Physical and Chemical Properties of Laboratory and Field-Aged Biochars.

The long-term impact of biochar on soil properties and agronomic outcomes is influenced by changes in the physical and chemical properties of biochars that occur with time (aging) in soil environments. Fresh biochars, however, are often used in studies because aged biochars are generally unavailable. Therefore, a need exists to develop a method for rapid aging of biochars in the laboratory. The objectives of this study were to compare the physicochemical properties of fresh, laboratory-aged (LA), and field-aged (FA) (≥3 yr) biochars and to assess the appropriateness of a laboratory aging procedure that combines acidification, oxidation, and incubations as a mimic to field aging in neutral or acidic soil environments. Twenty-two biochars produced by fast and slow pyrolysis, and gasification techniques from five different biomass feedstocks (hardwood, corn stover, soybean stover, macadamia nut shells, and switchgrass) were studied. In general, both laboratory and field aging caused similar increases in ash-free volatile matter (% w/w), cation and anion exchange capacities, specific surface area, and modifications in oxygen-containing surface functional groups of the biochars. However, ash content increased for FA (18-195%) and decreased for LA (22-74%) biochars, and pH decreased to a greater extent for LA (2.8-6.7 units) than for FA (1.6-3.8 units) biochars. The results demonstrate that the proposed laboratory aging procedure is effective for predicting the direction of changes in biochar properties on field aging. However, in the future we recommend using a less aggressive acid treatment.

Evaluation of modified boehm titration methods for use with biochars.

The Boehm titration, originally developed to quantify organic functional groups of carbon blacks and activated carbons in discrete pK ranges, has received growing attention for analyzing biochar. However, properties that distinguish biochar from carbon black and activated carbon, including greater carbon solubility and higher ash content, may render the original Boehm titration method unreliable for use with biochars. Here we use seven biochars and one reference carbon black to evaluate three Boehm titration methods that use (i) acidification followed by sparging (sparge method), (ii) centrifugation after treatment with BaCl (barium method), and (iii) a solid-phase extraction cartridge followed by acidification and sparging (cartridge method) to remove carbonates and dissolved organic compounds (DOC) from the Boehm extracts before titration. Our results for the various combinations of Boehm reactants and methods indicate that no one method was free of bias for all three Boehm reactants and that the cartridge method showed evidence of bias for all pK ranges. By process of elimination, we found that a combination of the sparge method for quantifying functional groups in the lowest pK range (∼5 to 6.4), and the barium method for quantifying functional groups in the higher pK ranges (∼6.4 to 10.3 and ∼10.3 to 13) to be free of evidence for bias. We caution, however, that further testing is needed and that all Boehm titration results for biochars should be considered suspect unless efforts were undertaken to remove ash and prevent interference from DOC.

Impact of biochar-based slow-release N-fertilizers on maize growth and nitrogen recovery efficiency.

Biochar has been used to address several environmental problems and may be efficacious as a carrier of N-fertilizer in slow-release N-fertilizer (SRF) formulations. Our objective was to compare the efficacy of SRF pellets formulated with different mass ratios of biochar and urea with traditional N-fertilizers for improving N use efficiency by maize (Zea mays L.) grown under greenhouse conditions. Two different soil types, four SRF formulations with different biochar-to-urea (BCN) ratios (1:2 BCN, 1:3 BCN, 1:4 BCN, and 1:6 BCN), three traditional N-fertilizers (urea, urea ammonium nitrate, and S-coated urea), and unfertilized controls for each soil were tested. The accelerated urea release test showed significantly less loss of urea for the SRF over time than the traditional N-fertilizers. The biochar-based SRF formulations significantly (p < 0.05) decreased nitrate leaching loss for both soils relative to the traditional fertilizers. All the SRF formulations increased maize shoot (1%-34%) and root (0%-23%) biomass, N-recovery efficiency (17%-50%), and soil potential mineralizable-N relative to urea and S-coated urea. The results also indicate that the BCN ratio in the SRF formulation can be used to influence the timing of N release and plant N uptake. The results of the greenhouse study suggest that biochar-based SRFs have potential agronomic and environmental benefits; however, more research is needed to assess their agronomic value under field conditions.

Environmental benefits of biochar.

Understanding and improving environmental quality by reducing soil nutrient leaching losses, reducing bioavailability of environmental contaminants, sequestering C, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and enhancing crop productivity in highly weathered or degraded soils, has been the goal of agroecosystem researchers and producers for years. Biochar, produced by pyrolysis of biomass, may help attain these goals. The desire to advance understanding of the environmental and agronomic implication of biochar utilization led to the organization of the 2010 American Society of Agronomy-Soil Science Society of America Environmental Quality Division session titled "Biochar Effects on the Environment and Agricultural Productivity." This specialized session and sessions from other biochar conferences, such as the 2010 U.S. Biochar Initiative and the Biochar Symposium 2010 are the sources for this special manuscript collection. Individual contributions address improvement of the biochar knowledge base, current information gaps, and future biochar research needs. The prospect of biochar utilization is promising, as biochars may be customized for specific environmental applications.

Extent of pyrolysis impacts on fast pyrolysis biochar properties.

A potential concern about the use of fast pyrolysis rather than slow pyrolysis biochars as soil amendments is that they may contain high levels of bioavailable C due to short particle residence times in the reactors, which could reduce the stability of biochar C and cause nutrient immobilization in soils. To investigate this concern, three corn ( L.) stover fast pyrolysis biochars prepared using different reactor conditions were chemically and physically characterized to determine their extent of pyrolysis. These biochars were also incubated in soil to assess their impact on soil CO emissions, nutrient availability, microorganism population growth, and water retention capacity. Elemental analysis and quantitative solid-state C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy showed variation in O functional groups (associated primarily with carbohydrates) and aromatic C, which could be used to define extent of pyrolysis. A 24-wk incubation performed using a sandy soil amended with 0.5 wt% of corn stover biochar showed a small but significant decrease in soil CO emissions and a decrease in the bacteria:fungi ratios with extent of pyrolysis. Relative to the control soil, biochar-amended soils had small increases in CO emissions and extractable nutrients, but similar microorganism populations, extractable NO levels, and water retention capacities. Corn stover amendments, by contrast, significantly increased soil CO emissions and microbial populations, and reduced extractable NO. These results indicate that C in fast pyrolysis biochar is stable in soil environments and will not appreciably contribute to nutrient immobilization.

Effective hepatitis A virus inactivation during low-heat dehydration of contaminated green onions.

Preserving fruits and vegetables by dehydration is common; however, information is limited concerning viral survival on the produce during the process. This work demonstrated the effects of low heat dehydration on inactivating hepatitis A virus (HAV) on contaminated green onions. Inoculated and uninoculated onion samples were dehydrated at target temperatures of 45-65 °C for 20 h. HAV from artificially contaminated onions (fresh or dehydrated) was eluted by shaking at 145 rpm at 20 °C for 20 min with 3% beef extract, pH 8, and followed by 0.2 µM-membrane filtration before plaque assay and quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis. Dilutions of the filtrates were made for obtaining countable plaques on FRhK-4 cell monolayers in 6-well plates, and also for eliminating inhibitors in qRT-PCR. Average water activity of the onions after 20 h-dehydration was 0.227, regardless of temperature used (47.9 °C or 65.1 °C). Eight dehydration trials resulted in a linear relationship between HAV inactivation and dehydration temperature, with HAV log reduction = 0.1372x(°C) - 5.5572, r(2) = 0.88. Therefore, the 20 h-heating at 47.8, 55.1, and 62.4 °C reduced infectious HAV in onions by 1, 2, and 3 logs respectively, the Z value being 7.3 °C. It was concluded that low heat dehydration using 62.5 °C or above could effectively inactivate HAV on contaminated onions by >3 logs.

Estimating the organic oxygen content of biochar.

The organic O content of biochar is useful for assessing biochar stability and reactivity. However, accurately determining the organic O content of biochar is difficult. Biochar contains both organic and inorganic forms of O, and some of the organic O is converted to inorganic O (e.g., newly formed carbonates) when samples are ashed. Here, we compare estimates of the O content for biochars produced from pure compounds (little or no ash), acid-washed biomass (little ash), and unwashed biomass (range of ash content). Novelty of this study includes a new method to predict organic O content of biochar using three easily measured biochar parameters- pyrolysis temperature, H/C molar ratio, and %biochar yield, and evidence indicating that the conventional difference method may substantially underestimate the organic O in biochar and adversely impact the accuracy of O:C ratios and van Krevelen plots. We also present evidence that acid washing removed 17% of the structural O from biochars and significantly changes O/C ratios. Environmental modelers are encouraged to use biochar H:C ratios.

Nitrogen fertilizer effects on soil carbon balances in midwestern U.S. agricultural systems.

A single ecosystem dominates the Midwestern United States, occupying 26 million hectares in five states alone: the corn-soybean agroecosystem [Zea mays L.-Glycine max (L.) Merr.]. Nitrogen (N) fertilization could influence the soil carbon (C) balance in this system because the corn phase is fertilized in 97-100% of farms, at an average rate of 135 kg N x ha(-1) x yr(-1). We evaluated the impacts on two major processes that determine the soil C balance, the rates of organic-carbon (OC) inputs and decay, at four levels of N fertilization, 0, 90, 180, and 270 kg/ha, in two long-term experimental sites in Mollisols in Iowa, USA. We compared the corn-soybean system with other experimental cropping systems fertilized with N in the corn phases only: continuous corn for grain; corn-corn-oats (Avena sativa L.)-alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.; corn-oats-alfalfa-alfalfa; and continuous soybean. In all systems, we estimated long-term OC inputs and decay rates over all phases of the rotations, based on long-term yield data, harvest indices (HI), and root:shoot data. For corn, we measured these two ratios in the four N treatments in a single year in each site; for other crops we used published ratios. Total OC inputs were calculated as aboveground plus belowground net primary production (NPP) minus harvested yield. For corn, measured total OC inputs increased with N fertilization (P < 0.05, both sites). Belowground NPP, comprising only 6-22% of total corn NPP, was not significantly influenced by N fertilization. When all phases of the crop rotations were evaluated over the long term, OC decay rates increased concomitantly with OC input rates in several systems. Increases in decay rates with N fertilization apparently offset gains in carbon inputs to the soil in such a way that soil C sequestration was virtually nil in 78% of the systems studied, despite up to 48 years of N additions. The quantity of belowground OC inputs was the best predictor of long-term soil C storage. This indicates that, in these systems, in comparison with increased N-fertilizer additions, selection of crops with high belowground NPP is a more effective management practice for increasing soil C sequestration.

Survival of hepatitis A virus in spinach during low temperature storage.

Spinach leaves are frequently consumed raw and have been involved with past foodborne outbreaks. In this study, we examined the survival of hepatitis A virus (HAV) on fresh spinach leaves in moisture- and gas-permeable packages that were stored at 5.4 +/- 1.2 degrees C for up to 42 days. Different eluents including phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), pH 7.5 (with and without 2% serum), and 3% beef extract (pH 7.5 and 8) were compared for how efficiently they recovered viruses from spinach by using a simple elution procedure (<1 h). The recoveries were compared and determined by a plaque assay with FRhK-4 cells. Culture grade PBS containing 2% serum was found to be appropriate for HAV elution from spinach leaves, with an average recovery of 45% +/- 10%. Over 4 weeks of storage at 5.4 +/- 1.2 degrees C, HAV in spinach decreased slightly more than 1 log, with 6.75% of the original titer remaining. HAV survived under refrigerated temperatures on spinach leaves with a D-value of 28.6 days (equivalent to an inactivation rate of -0.035 log of HAV per day, r(2) = 0.88). In comparison, HAV in PBS containing 2% serum under the same storage conditions remained constant throughout 7 weeks. The inactivation rate of -0.035 log each day for HAV on spinach leaves was possibly due to the interaction of the virus and the leaf.

Adsorption behaviour and mechanisms of cadmium and nickel on rice straw biochars in single- and binary-metal systems.

Adsorption mechanisms and competition between Cd2+ and Ni2+ for adsorption by rice straw biochars prepared at 400 °C (RB400) and 700 °C (RB700) were investigated in this study. Based on the Langmuir model, the maximum adsorption capacities (mg g-1) of Cd2+ and Ni2+ on RB400 and RB700 were in the order of Cd2+ (37.24 and 65.40) > Ni2+ (27.31 and 54.60) in the single-metal adsorption isotherms and Ni2+ (25.20 and 32.28) > Cd2+ (24.22 and 26.78) in the binary-metal adsorption isotherms. Cd2+ competed with Ni2+ for binding sites at initial metal concentrations >10 mg L-1 for RB400 and > 20 mg L-1 for RB700. The adsorption sites for Cd2+ and Ni2+ on the biochars largely overlapped, and the binding of Cd2+ and Ni2+ to these sites was affected by the occupation sequence of these metals. For Cd2+ and Ni2+ adsorption in the binary system, cation exchange and precipitation were the dominant adsorption mechanisms on RB400 and RB700, respectively, accounting for approximately 36% and 60% of the adsorption capacity. Competition decreased the contribution of cation exchange but increased that of precipitation and other potential mechanisms. Results from this study suggest that types and concentrations of metal ions should be taken into account when removing metal contaminants from water or soil using biochars.

Dedicated Bioenergy Crops and Water Erosion.

Information on the water quality impact of perennial warm-season grasses (WSGs) when grown in marginal lands as dedicated energy crops is limited. We studied how WSGs affected runoff, sediment, and nutrient losses and related near-surface soil properties to those of no-till corn ( L.) on an eroded soil in southwestern Iowa and a center pivot corner in east-central Nebraska. The experiment at the eroded soil was established in 2012, and treatments included 'Liberty' switchgrass ( L.) and no-till continuous corn. The experiment at the pivot corner was established in 2013 with 'Liberty' switchgrass, 'Shawnee' switchgrass, low-diversity grass mixture, and corn. We simulated rainfall at 63.5 ± 2.8 mm h for 1 h to portray 5-yr return periods and measured water erosion in spring 2017. Time to runoff start and runoff depth did not differ between WSGs and corn. On the eroded soil, sediment and nutrient losses did not differ between treatments. At the pivot corner, sediment (0.71 vs. 0.15 Mg ha) and PO-P (0.037 vs. 0.006 kg ha) losses were five times higher in corn than in WSGs. Near-surface soil properties did not differ on the eroded soil, but at the pivot corner, wet aggregate stability was four times higher and residue cover was 34% higher in WSGs than in corn. Water-stable aggregates were negatively correlated with NO-N and PO-P losses. Overall, WSGs can improve water quality in marginally productive croplands, but their effectiveness appears to be site specific.

Quantification and characterization of chemically-and thermally-labile and recalcitrant biochar fractions.

The C:N ratios of biochar labile fractions is important for assessing biochar stability and N cycling in soil. Here we compare chemically and thermally labile fractions for nine biochars produced from five biomass feedstocks using four production techniques. Biochar fractionation methods included proximate analysis, hot water extraction, acid and base extractions (0.05 M, 0.5 M, 1 M, 2 M, 3 M, and 6 M of either H2SO4 or NaOH), and oxidation with 15% H2O2 and 0.33 M KMnO4 (pH 7.2). Results show chemical addition reactions cause underestimation of mass of the labile fraction for chemical extraction and oxidation procedures but not the thermal procedure. Estimates of C and N in labile and recalcitrant fractions were not adversely affected by addition reactions, because solvents were independent of C or N. Results indicate that herbaceous biochars may be a source of N fertility while hardwood biochars may immobilize N during the first few years after biochar application to soils.

Sorption of ammonium and nitrate to biochars is electrostatic and pH-dependent.

Biochars are potentially effective sorbents for NH4+ and NO3- in water treatment and soil applications. Here we compare NH4+ and NO3- sorption rates to acid-washed biochars produced from red oak (Quercus rubra) and corn stover (Zea mays) at three pyrolysis temperatures (400, 500 and 600 °C) and a range of solution pHs (3.5-7.5). Additionally, we examined sorption mechanisms by quantification of NH4+ and NO3- sorption, as well as Ca2+ and Cl- displacement for corn stover biochars. Solution pH curves showed that NH4+ sorption was maximized (0.7-0.8 mg N g-1) with low pyrolysis temperature (400 °C) biochar at near neutral pH (7.0-7.5), whereas NO3- sorption was maximized (1.4-1.5 mg N g-1) with high pyrolysis temperatures (600 °C) and low pH (3.5-4). The Langmuir (r2 = 0.90-1.00) and Freundlich (r2 = 0.81-0.97) models were good predictors for both NH4+ (pH 7) and NO3- (pH 3.7) sorption isotherms. Lastly, NH4+ and NO3- displaced Ca2+ and Cl-, respectively, from previously CaCl2-saturated corn stover biochars. Results from the pH curves, Langmuir isotherms, and cation displacement curves all support the predominance of ion exchange mechanisms. Our results demonstrate the importance of solution pH and chemical composition in influencing NH4+ and NO3- sorption capacities of biochar.

Arsenic sorption on zero-valent iron-biochar complexes.

Arsenic (As) is toxic to human and is often found in drinking water in India and Bangladesh, due to the natural abundance of arsenides ores. Different removal procedures such as precipitation, sorption, ion exchange and membrane separation have been employed for removal of As from contaminated drinking water (CDW), however, there is a critical need for low-cost economically viable biochar modification methods which can enhance As sorption. Here we studied the effectiveness of zero-valent iron (ZVI)-biochar complexes produced by high temperature pyrolysis of biomass and magnetite for removing As5+ from CDW. Batch equilibration and column leaching studies show that ZVI-biochar complexes are effective for removing As5+ from CDW for the studied pH range (pH ∼7-7.5) and in the presence of competing ions. XPS As 3d analysis of ZVI-biochar complexes exposed to As5+ in the batch and column studies show primarily As3+, indicating simultaneous oxidation of Fe° to Fe3+ and reduction of As5+ to As3+. SEM-EDS and XRD analyses show isomorphous substitution of As3+ for Fe3+ in neo-formed α/γ-FeOOH on biochar surfaces, which is attribute to co-precipitation. This study also demonstrates the efficacy of pyrolyzing biomass with low-cost iron ores at 900 °C to rapidly produce ZVI-biochar complexes, which have potential to be used for treatment of As CDW.

Quantitative mechanisms of cadmium adsorption on rice straw- and swine manure-derived biochars.

We quantified and investigated mechanisms for Cd2+ adsorption on biochars produced from plant residual and animal waste at various temperatures. Ten biochars were produced by pyrolysis of rice straw (RB) and swine manure (SB) at 300-700 °C and characterized. The Cd2+ adsorption isotherms, adsorption kinetics, and desorption characteristics were studied via a series of batch experiments, and Cd2+-loaded biochars were analyzed by SEM-EDS and XRD. The total Cd2+ adsorption capacity (Qc) increased with pyrolysis temperature for both biochars, however, rice straw-derived biochars had greater Qc than swine manure-derived biochars; hence, the biochar derived from rice straw at 700 °C (RB700) had the largest Qc, 64.4 mg g-1, of all studied biochars. Cadmium adsorption mechanisms in this study involved precipitation with minerals (Qcp), cation exchange (Qci), complexation with surface functional groups (Qco), and Cd-π interactions (Qcπ). Both the pyrolysis temperature and feedstock affected the quantitative contributions of the various adsorption mechanisms. The relative percent contributions to Qc for Cd2+ adsorption by RB and SB were 32.9-72.9% and 35.0-72.5% for Qcp, 21.7-50.9% and 20.4-43.3% for Qci, 2.2-14.8% and 1.4-18.8% for Qco, and 1.4-3.1% and 3.0-5.8% for Qcπ, respectively. For biochars produced at higher pyrolysis temperatures, the contributions of Qcp and Qcπ to adsorption increased, while the contributions of Qci and Qco decreased. Generally, Qcp dominated Cd2+ adsorption by high-temperature biochars (700 °C) (accounting for approximately 73% of Qc), and Qci was the most prominent mechanism for low-temperature biochars (400 °C) (accounting for 43.3-50.9% of Qc). Results suggested that biochar derived from rice straw is a promising adsorbent for the Cd2+ removal from wastewater and that the low-temperature biochars may outperform the high-temperature biochars for Cd2+ immobilization in acidic water or soils.

The impacts of biomass properties on pyrolysis yields, economic and environmental performance of the pyrolysis-bioenergy-biochar platform to carbon negative energy.

This study evaluated the impact of biomass properties on the pyrolysis product yields, economic and environmental performance for the pyrolysis-biochar-bioenergy platform. We developed and applied a fast pyrolysis, feedstock-sensitive, regression-based chemical process model to 346 different feedstocks, which were grouped into five types: woody, stalk/cob/ear, grass/plant, organic residue/product and husk/shell/pit. The results show that biomass ash content of 0.3-7.7wt% increases biochar yield from 0.13 to 0.16kg/kg of biomass, and decreases biofuel yields from 87.3 to 40.7 gallons per tonne. Higher O/C ratio (0.88-1.12) in biomass decreases biochar yield and increases biofuel yields within the same ash content level. Higher ash content of biomass increases minimum fuel selling price (MFSP), while higher O/C ratio of biomass decreases MFSP within the same ash content level. The impact of ash and O/C ratio of biomass on GHG emissions are not consistent for all feedstocks.

Characterization and quantification of biochar alkalinity.

Lack of knowledge regarding the nature of biochar alkalis has hindered understanding of pH-sensitive biochar-soil interactions. Here we investigate the nature of biochar alkalinity and present a cohesive suite of methods for its quantification. Biochars produced from cellulose, corn stover and wood feedstocks had significant low-pKa organic structural (0.03-0.34 meq g-1), other organic (0-0.92 meq g-1), carbonate (0.02-1.5 meq g-1), and other inorganic (0-0.26 meq g-1) alkalinities. All four categories of biochar alkalinity contributed to total biochar alkalinity and are therefore relevant to pH-sensitive soil processes. Total biochar alkalinity was strongly correlated with base cation concentration, but biochar alkalinity was not a simple function of elemental composition, soluble ash, fixed carbon, or volatile matter content. More research is needed to characterize soluble biochar alkalis other than carbonates and to establish predictive relationships among biochar production parameters and the composition of biochar alkalis.

The effect of caffeine on skeletal muscle anabolic signaling and hypertrophy.

Caffeine is a widely consumed stimulant with the potential to enhance physical performance through multiple mechanisms. However, recent in vitro findings have suggested that caffeine may block skeletal muscle anabolic signaling through AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-mediated inhibition of mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway. This could negatively affect protein synthesis and the capacity for muscle growth. The primary purpose of this study was to assess the effect of caffeine on in vivo AMPK and mTOR pathway signaling, protein synthesis, and muscle growth. In cultured C2C12 muscle cells, physiological levels of caffeine failed to impact mTOR activation or myoblast proliferation or differentiation. We found that caffeine administration to mice did not significantly enhance the phosphorylation of AMPK or inhibit signaling proteins downstream of mTOR (p70S6k, S6, or 4EBP1) or protein synthesis after a bout of electrically stimulated contractions. Skeletal muscle-specific knockout of LKB1, the primary AMPK activator in skeletal muscle, on the other hand, eliminated AMPK activation by contractions and enhanced S6k, S6, and 4EBP1 activation before and after contractions. In rats, the addition of caffeine did not affect plantaris hypertrophy induced by the tenotomy of the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles. In conclusion, caffeine administration does not impair skeletal muscle load-induced mTOR signaling, protein synthesis, or muscle hypertrophy.