Antidepressant Use and Risk of Myocardial Infarction: A Longitudinal Investigation of Sex-Specific Associations in the HUNT Study.

OBJECTIVE: Antidepressants are thought to affect the risk of cardiovascular disease, although the nature of the association is unclear. Men and women have unique cardiovascular risk factors, and sex differences in depression as well as the efficacy of antidepressants are important to consider. We examined whether antidepressant use was associated with risk of having a myocardial infarction (MI) and whether this association was sex-specific. METHODS: Data from The Trøndelag Health Study were used, gathered from a population in Norway ( N = 31,765), collected from 1995 to 2008. These data were combined with the Norwegian Cause of Death Registry and the Norwegian Prescription Database. We performed logistic regression models to examine the association of antidepressant use on risk of having a fatal or nonfatal MI, adjusting for depression, anxiety, diabetes, systolic blood pressure, cholesterol, waist-hip ratio, smoking, age, and sex. Results are presented as odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals in parentheses. RESULTS: The results indicated that antidepressant use was associated with a reduced risk of having MI at a later date (OR = 0.49 [0.38-0.64]). Although this association was somewhat stronger for women (OR = 0.46 [0.31-0.68]) compared with men (OR = 0.53 [0.37-0.75]), analysis did not identify a sex-specific association of antidepressant use on MI. Follow-up analyses on different subtypes of antidepressants showed that both selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and tricyclic antidepressant were associated with a reduced risk of MI. CONCLUSIONS: In this population study, the use of antidepressants was associated with a reduced risk of MI. This association was stronger for women, although we detected no interaction between sex and antidepressant use in terms of reduced risk of MI. Although limitations apply regarding causality, especially concerning a dose-response relationship, the results suggest that antidepressant use might reduce the risk of MI among both men and women.

Police employees working from home during COVID-19 lockdown: Those with higher score on extraversion miss their colleagues more and are more likely to socialize with colleagues outside work.

There is a general opinion that extraverted people suffer more than introverted people in home-office arrangement and the social distancing regulation imposed by the government during the Corona Virus Disease 2019 pandemic (COVID-19). However, scarce research exists concerning how extraversion is associated with satisfaction with home-office arrangement, to what extent individuals miss their colleagues, level of stress, and whether they meet colleagues outside work during lockdown. An online survey was distributed in six police districts in Norway during late May and beginning of June, right before the most stringent measures for constraining risk of COVID-infection was lifted. 1133 out of 1472 reported that their work-situation was home-office, or combined home-office and physical attendance at work. Contrary to what expected, extraversion was not related to satisfaction with home-office arrangement when controlling for other relevant variables (i.e. stress, home-office only, living alone, age, gender and civilian employment). As hypothesized, those with a higher score on extraversion missed their colleagues more than those with low scores. There was a marginal, although significant, negative association between extraversion and stress, and a significant positive relationship between stress and the extent the respondents missed their colleagues during lockdown, independent of extraversion. The results showed a dose-response relationship between extraversion and meeting colleagues outside the work during lockdown.

Personality traits, gender differences and symptoms of anhedonia: What does the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) measure in nonclinical settings?

In healthy populations men report more depressive symptoms than women when depression is measured by the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). This study aims to investigate the role of neuroticism and extroversion in symptom reporting by men and women and whether anhedonia can explain these reversed gender differences in depression observed when using HADS. HADS, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) and NEO Five Factor Inventory (NEO FFI) were administered twice to a sample of university students. Number of subjects at T1 was 372 and 160 at T2, measured two months apart. Men had a higher average score on depressive symptoms measured by HADS-D compared to women (p = 0.029). Women scored higher than men on HADS-A (p = 0.012), neuroticism (p < 0.001) and PANAS-negative affect (p < 0.029). No significant gender differences were observed in extroversion and positive affect. Test-retest stabilities on HADS-A and HADS-D were high. Neuroticism predicted HADS-A at Time 2. Gender, extroversion, and neuroticism predicted HADS-D at Time 2. The anhedonic content in HADS may be a plausible explanation of reversed gender differences in the HADS depression scale. HADS-D represents a specific anhedonic subtype of depression where symptom reporting reflects dispositional tendencies related specifically to extroversion.

Symptoms of depression and anxiety before and after myocardial infarction: The HUNT 2 and HUNT 3 study.

The long-term effect of having a myocardial infarction (MI) and to what extent post-MI anxiety and depression can be attributed to pre-MI anxiety and depression are not known. Anxiety as an independent risk factor for the onset of MI is not clear and studies treating anxiety and depression as continuous variables are lacking. Baseline data in this prospective study were obtained from the Health Study of Nord-Trøndelag County (HUNT 2). Anxiety and depression were measured with the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) at HUNT 2. Age, gender, waist circumference, hypertension, total cholesterol, diabetes, and years of daily smoking were included as control variables. In the sample of 28,859 participants, 770 MI were reported in the follow-up study 5-8 years later (HUNT 3). The level of depressive symptoms at HUNT 2 was a significant and independent predictor of MI at HUNT 3, while symptoms of anxiety were not. Level of anxiety and depression at HUNT 3 was best predicted by baseline anxiety and depression. Having an MI had only a marginal effect on the levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms at HUNT 3. In the MI group, time since MI was not a significant predictor of anxiety and depression.

Public perception of individuals who commit Child Sexual Abuse Material offences: Exploring the impact of demographic variables and cross-national differences.

BACKGROUND: Lay perceptions of persons who download and distribute Child Sexual Abuse Material (CSAM) is an underexplored subject. There is a need for understanding the factors that influence perceptions as the public perceptions have implications for endorsement of sex offender rehabilitation that in turn can influence the availability of treatment programs and stigma for help-seeking. OBJECTIVE: To explore public perceptions of individuals that commit child sexual abuse offences, to compare the results to those obtained in a large US sample, and to explore associations between demographic variables, general perceptions and endorsement of imprisonment and treatment for individuals that commit CSAM offences. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: An online survey were distributed in Norway in February 2023. 618 individuals responded, 76 % were female, mean age 34.99 (SD = 14.23), the majority (>70 %) had higher education, and 44 % had children. RESULTS: Consistent with prior research, the public perceptions overestimated the risk of future contact offences and recidivism. Women overestimated the percentage of risk of contact offences and pedophilic interest more than men. The overestimation was significantly less in this sample compared to the US sample (d = 0.39-0.96). Those working with online child abuse had perceptions of persons committing CSAM offences that were more aligned with empirical findings. Demographic variables were only marginally associated with endorsement for treatment and imprisonment, except for having children, which was associated with endorsement of imprisonment. Perceived risk of contact offences, pedophilic preference, and assumed childhood sexual victimization were associated with perceptions of individuals committing CSAM offences as different than those committing physical sexual abuse and both endorsement of treatment and imprisonment. CONCLUSIONS: The perceptions of those who commit CSAM offences showed a stronger association with endorsement for treatment and imprisonment than demographic variables.

The effect of immersion on sense of presence and affect when experiencing an educational scenario in virtual reality: A randomized controlled study.

Virtual reality (VR) technology has been used to learn skills for decades. While no standardized measure exists for learning outcomes in VR training, commonly explored outcomes are immersion, sense of presence and emotions. Methods: In this paper, the objective was to investigate these outcomes in two VR conditions, immersive and desktop in a randomized controlled trial with a parallel design. The sample consisted of 134 university students (70 women, mean age 23 years, SD = 2.99). These were randomized using a covariate-adaptive randomization procedure based on stratification by gender into two interventions; play out a VR scenario in either desktop (control group) or immersive VR (intervention group). The setting was a university lab. Results: There was a significant within subject effect for positive affect and a significant between-group effect for the immersive compared to desktop VR groups. Positive affect was reduced after interacting with the VR scenario in both the immersive and desktop versions, however, positive affect was overall higher in the immersive, compared to the desktop version. The results show higher scores for sense of presence (d = 0.90, p < 0.001) and positive affect pre- and post-scenario in the immersive VR condition (d = 0.42, p = 0.017 and d = 0.54, p = 0.002) compared to the desktop condition. Conclusion: Immersive VR may be beneficial in higher education as it promotes high levels of sense of presence as well as positive emotions. When it comes to changing the immediate emotions of the students, type of VR does not seem to matter. The project was funded by the Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills.

The Protective Effect of Fair and Supportive Leadership against Burnout in Police Employees.

Background: This study investigated the association between fair and supportive leadership and symptoms of burnout and insomnia in police employees. Burnout and insomnia can have negative consequences for health, performance, and safety among employees in the police profession, and risk and protective factors should be thoroughly investigated. Methods: Data were collected in a police district in Norway through questionnaires administered in October 2018 and May 2019. The sample consisted of 206 police employees (52% males), with an average age of 42 years and 16 years of experience in the police occupation. Results: The results showed that a high degree of fair and supportive leadership was associated with lower levels of burnout and insomnia six months later. Fair and supportive leadership explained a greater amount of variance in burnout compared to insomnia. This finding indicates that fair and supportive leadership is a more important buffer factor against burnout than it is against insomnia. Stress was positively associated with burnout and insomnia, whereas quantitative job demands had no significant association with the concepts. Conclusion: Fair and supportive leadership can help protect employees from adverse consequences of stress and contribute to improved occupational health, whereas a low degree of support and fair treatment from leaders can both represent a stressor by itself and contribute to poorer coping of stressful events at work. The important role of leadership should be incorporated in measures aimed at preventing and reducing burnout and sleep problems.

Sex-specific psychological risk profiles of CVD in the HUNT study: the role of neuroticism and extraversion.

OBJECTIVE: The aim was to investigate psychological risk profiles of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Depression and anxiety have been linked to CVD, but research has not incorporated personality and sex-specific analyses are warranted. In this study, we examine the role of sex, neuroticism, extraversion, anxiety and depression on the risk of CVD. METHOD: Using data from the HUNT-study and the mortality register, 32,383 (57.10% men) participants were followed for an average of 10.48 years. During this time, 142 died of myocardial infarction (MI) and 111 of stroke. RESULTS: Cox regression showed that depression (HR = 1.07, 95% CI = [1.00, 1.14]) and neuroticism (1.23 [1.08, 1.40]) were significantly related to an increased risk of MI. One standard unit increase in depression and neuroticism was associated with 1.22 [CI 1.01, 1.47] increase and 1.43 [CI 1.14, 0.78] increase in the risk of MI respectively. For stroke, there was no significant effect of anxiety, depression or personality. However, we found a significant interaction effect between sex and extraversion where higher extraversion was associated with greater risk of stroke for women only. CONCLUSIONS: Both neuroticism and depression were related to MI. We observed an interaction between extraversion and sex with stroke, but the effect size was small. The role of extroversion as a risk factor for CVD remains inconclusive.

Upper and lower musculoskeletal back pain, stress, physical activity, and organisational work support: An exploratory study of police investigative interviewers.

Police investigative interviewers in special victims' units have particularly stressing work conditions. Being few in numbers, with highly specialised competence, the health and well-being of this workgroup are key. This study explores the prevalence of muscular lower and upper back pain and stress and associations with physical activity and organisational work support among 77 police investigators. The police investigative interviewers reported high levels of physical activity. Compared to other police employees, they reported similar levels of musculoskeletal back pain, higher levels of upper back pain, and higher levels of stress. Physical activity was not related to musculoskeletal back pain. In the regression analysis, musculoskeletal back pain was negatively associated with organisational work support. Limitations due to low statistical power and a cross-sectional design apply. However, the study provides interesting insight into the prevalence of musculoskeletal back pain and its association with organisational work support and stress among police employees.

Intensive outpatient treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder: a thematic analysis of patient experience.

Background: Intensive treatments have shown encouraging results in the treatment of several psychological disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, qualitative studies on patient experiences with intensive treatment for PTSD remain scarce. Objective: The aim of this study was to explore patient experiences with an intensive, outpatient treatment for PTSD and to discover important factors behind treatment feasibility. Method: Eight participants were recruited from two groups of patients having completed the intensive treatment programme. Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted, and data sets were analysed using thematic analysis. Results: The main result indicated that patients experienced the treatment as very demanding, but still worth the effort in terms of reducing symptoms. The intensity was valued as useful. Participants emphasized the sense of unity with other participants as well as physical activity as important factors for completion of the treatment programme. The rotation of therapists was also highlighted as important for treatment efficacy. Conclusions: This study provides insights into what the patients experienced and emphasized as important aspects of treatment and essential factors for completing treatment. The main conclusions were that all of the patients evaluated the treatment as demanding, but the reward of reduced symptoms made it worthwhile. The high frequency of therapy sessions and the therapist rotation were reported to counteract avoidance and increase the patients' commitment to therapy. Physical activity and unity in the group were highlighted as essential for treatment feasibility. HIGHLIGHTS: • High treatment intensity enabled increased focus and adherence, and reduced avoidance. Therapist rotation led to heightened intensity and new learning experiences.• Physical activity and sense of unity through group elements were reported as important factors for treatment feasibility.

Associations between Sleep and Work-Related Cognitive and Emotional Functioning in Police Employees.

AIM: We aimed to examine the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between sleep and work-related impaired cognitive and emotional functioning in police employees. METHODS: This study included 410 participants (52% men) employed in a police district in Norway at baseline, of which 50% also participated in the study at 6 months later follow-up. The questionnaires included items measuring work schedule, sleep length, insomnia, as well as impaired cognitive and emotional functioning at work. RESULTS: The results showed that insomnia was related to impaired work-related emotional functioning measured at baseline, and to impaired cognitive functioning measured at both baseline and follow-up. Sleep length and rotating shift work were not associated with future decline in cognitive or emotional functioning. CONCLUSION: Our study indicates that the relationship between insomnia and emotional functioning at work may be transient, whereas insomnia can be related to both immediate and future impaired cognitive functioning. Replication of the findings in larger samples is advised. The findings call for an emphasis on the prevention and treatment of sleep problems among police employees as a mean of maintaining and improving cognitive and emotional functioning at work, and thereby reducing the risk for impaired performance and negative health and safety outcomes.

Anxiety as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease independent of depression: A narrative review of current status and conflicting findings.

The aim of this paper is to summarise and evaluate the empirical support for the association between anxiety and cardiovascular disease (CVD) and to address challenges related to method and study design. We review results from meta-analyses and more recent findings on the association of anxiety and the risk of CVD. Depression and anxiety are often listed as psychosocial risk markers of CVD, but the role of anxiety as a risk factor for CVD has not received the same evidential support as the effects of depression. Through a narrative review we identified six meta-analyses as well as 15 recent large studies of anxiety and CVD that we summarise. Some of the conflicting findings may be artefacts of study design or population the sample is drawn from. Researchers should take care to be population specific, measurement specific and outcome specific, and to control for comorbid depression.

Living in the Era of an Ideological Climate of Globalisation: A Study of Psychological Sense of Community Among Young and Older Adults in Two Cultures (India and Norway). Challenges for Community Psychology and the Applied Social Sciences.

How do people describe the psychological sense of community (PSOC) in the present day ideological climate of globalising neo-liberalism, assuming that people are essentially individualistic, that solidarity, social commitment, and citizenship are not natural dispositions, as we all are the lonely citizen? This issue is addressed by a mixed-methods study using semi-structured interviews with two age groups-young and older people-from two different cultures-India (Mumbai) and Norway (Oslo). This two by two design gives the opportunity to analyse people's meaning systems of PSOC, asking; is there a core meaning system of PSOC shared by people within as well as across cultures? Belongingness and citizenship are continuously formed and negotiated, just at the intersection of two dimensions: culture and historical time. The young and older adult informants often live in different "historical times." The meaning systems of PSOC were explored and compared by language analyses of words used by the informants. Text search queries were made for 69 words. "Help,", "care," "different," "problem," and "family" were identified as central for further in-depth qualitative analyses. The word, "family" demonstrated high frequencies of use across sub-samples. There was nothing more relevant for the groups than the family when thinking of PSOC, revealing almost a "prior to society perspective." PSOC is about being part of families. Simultaneously, we are members of other communities: schools, workplaces, neighborhoods, cities and nations. The informants mentioned such communities, but not often. Feeling part of the family, helping and caring not only the family but also your neighbourhood, local community, or national and global communities are particularly necessary today, as we live in a time where communities, societies, and nations across the world are heavily impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. In this crisis, it is vital that nobody forgets that we are national and transnational citizens and part of many interrelated social systems. This study points out how community psychology and the applied social sciences can work to strengthen the feelings of connections to other communities, societies, and nations outlining and co-creating transformative multi-level interventions of public policy programmes of inclusion and "we-ness."

Anxiety as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease independent of depression: a prospective examination of community-dwelling men (the MrOS study).

OBJECTIVE: Anxiety and depression have been linked to increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Whether anxiety is a risk factor independent from depression, and if associations are limited to specific CVD outcomes remains unclear. Design: Participants (N = 3135) of the prospective Osteoporotic Fracturs in Men Sleep ancillary study were community-dwelling men (age ≥ 65) living in the US. Main outcome measures: The Goldberg Anxiety and Depression Scales, coronary heart disease (CHD) and cerebrovascular disease (CER). We used Cox proportional hazards models to calculate adjusted hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals. Results: During 12 years of follow-up, we accrued 612 cases of CHD and 291 cases of CER (incident or repeat-event). Overall, we observed no association between anxiety or depression and CER. Anxiety was significantly associated with CHD, but this effect was attenuated after controlling for depression and covariates. Depression was significantly associated with CHD after similar adjustments. For men without prior history of CVD, neither anxiety nor depression were associated with incident CHD. Conclusions: Anxiety was not a significant independent predictor of CHD or CER, suggesting that previous findings of anxiety as a risk factor of CVD might be attributed to failure to control for the effect of depression.

Psychometric Properties of the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale and a Facet-Level Analysis of the Relationship Between Anhedonia and Extraversion in a Nonclinical Sample.

The aim of this study is to investigate the psychometric properties of the Snaith-Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS) and look at facets of extraversion as predictors of anhedonia. SHAPS is hypothesized to be multidimensional, stable over time in a nonclinical sample, and related to extraversion on both dimension and facet level. Data collection was conducted at baseline ( N = 362) and at a 10-week follow-up ( N = 94). The structural properties of SHAPS were analyzed using principal component analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. Multiple regression explored facets of extraversion as predictors of anhedonia. The results show that SHAPS is stable across time ( r = .71, p < .001), with high internal consistency (α = .89). In the principal component analysis, a two-factor model emerged (Social and Physical anhedonia). The confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the two-factor model consisting of Physical anhedonia (α = .81) and Social anhedonia (α = .87) had a better fit than the one-factor model. Higher scores on Gregariousness and Positive emotions at baseline predicted higher scores on the SHAPS total and Social and Physical anhedonia ( p < .05). Lower scores on Assertiveness predicted higher scores on Social anhedonia ( p < .05). These results support the view of anhedonia as a multidimensional concept that should be regarded as a trait, rather than a state or mere bypassing symptom. The relationship between anhedonia and extroversion is best understood by applying a multidimensional approach to anhedonia and by focusing on the facet level of extroversion.

Gender differences in factors associated with symptoms of depression among high school students: an examination of the direct and indirect effects of insomnia symptoms and physical activity.

OBJECTIVE: Scant research exists on the gender-specific association between physical activity, insomnia symptoms and depressive symptoms among adolescents. The present study investigates the direct and indirect association of insomnia and physical activity with symptoms of depression. DESIGN: In a community-based sample (N = 1485) we investigated factors associated with symptoms of depression focusing on insomnia. The study also included measures of physical activity and controlled for parental work- and sexual minority status. Body mass Index (BMI) was calculated for a sub-sample (n = 617) reporting weight and height. RESULTS: The results showed that self-reported insomnia was highly prevalent, and the association between insomnia and depression was strong. The association between insomnia and depression was significantly stronger for girls than for boys. The effect of physical activity was substantially weaker compared to insomnia. Insomnia mediated the relationship between physical activity and depression for both boys and girls. Despite expectation based on the existing literature, BMI showed no association with symptoms of depression or physical activity. CONCLUSION: The results address the importance of a gender-specific approach when investigating mental health among adolescents. Given the high prevalence, interventions aimed at reducing insomnia is important in the prevention of mental illness, especially among girls.

Insomnia as a Partial Mediator of the Relationship Between Personality and Future Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression Among Nurses.

Background: This study investigates insomnia as a partial mediator in the relationship between personality and symptoms of anxiety and depression. Methods: The study is based on partly longitudinal data from the ongoing cohort study "Survey of Shift work, Sleep, and Health" (SUSSH) among Norwegian nurses, a survey examining the work situation and health status of Norwegian nurses measured with annual questionnaires. The present study uses data collected in 2012 (Wave 4), 2013 (Wave 5), and 2014 (Wave 6). The final sample at Wave 6 consisted of 2002 participants, of which 91% were females. The questionnaires included items measuring, among others, demographic variables, work time schedule, insomnia (Bergen Insomnia Scale), personality (Mini-IPIP) and anxiety and depression (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale). Results: Extraversion and conscientiousness had no significant direct or indirect association with insomnia, anxiety or depression. Neuroticism and insomnia had direct associations to future symptoms of anxiety and depression. Insomnia was also a significant partial mediator of the relationship between both neuroticism and anxiety, and neuroticism and depression, meaning that neuroticism had an indirect relation to symptoms of anxiety and depression through insomnia. When adjusting for previous symptoms of anxiety and depression at Wave 5, insomnia was no longer a significant mediator between neuroticism and anxiety, and only marginally mediated the relationship between neuroticism and depression. Conclusion: The results showed that insomnia may act as a mediator between neuroticism and symptoms of anxiety and depression, but the indirect relationship between neuroticism and anxiety and depression through insomnia is considerably weaker than the direct association. Hence, the mediating effect of insomnia should be interpreted with caution. The sample mainly consisted of female nurses, and the generalizability of the findings to male dominated occupations is limited. Findings from the present study highlight the importance of an integrated approach and strengthen the understanding of how personality and psychopathology are connected.

Dispositional factors and work mastery among shift workers.

The aim of the present study was to investigate how broad personality dimensions and dispositional resistance to change are associated with mastery of work among shift workers. A total of 285 shift workers employed in rotating shifts with morning, evening and night work and night shift schedules in a municipality in Norway completed electronic questionnaires. The findings suggest that the broad personality dimensions neuroticism and conscientiousness were significant predictors of perceived work mastery among shift workers in this sample, whereas the narrow trait dispositional resistance to change was not.

Anhedonic depression, history of depression, and anxiety as gender-specific risk factors of myocardial infarction in healthy men and women: The HUNT study.

This prospective study examines gender-specific psychological risk factors of myocardial infarction. Out of 41,248 participants free of coronary heart disease at baseline, 822 cases of myocardial infarction were identified in the Nord-Trøndelag Health Study or the mortality register. The participants completed the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Cholesterol, blood pressure, and waist-hip ratio were measured by medical staff. Smoking, diabetes, non-fatal myocardial infarction, and history of depressive episode were self-reported. Anhedonic depression (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale-D ≥8) was a significant predictor of myocardial infarction in women but not in men. Gender difference in risk estimate based on Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale-D was significant (p < .01). History of depressive episode was a significant predictor of myocardial infarction in men. Symptoms of anxiety (Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale-A ≥8) reduced the risk of having a myocardial infarction.

The personality of homeopaths: a cross-sectional survey of the personality profiles of homeopaths compared to a norm sample.

OBJECTIVES: The Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) was used to describe the personality profiles of homeopaths in Norway. It was hypothesized that the homeopaths would score higher than the norm sample on Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. DESIGN: The NEO-PI-R describes personality scores on five traits; Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. A cross-sectional survey of 128 (39%) members of the Norwegian association for homeopaths was compared with the Norwegian population norm sample. RESULTS: Compared to the norm population score with a mean of 50, the homeopaths scored significantly higher on the personality traits Openness (54.7) and Agreeableness (58.0). Significant, but small differences were also observed with a higher score on Conscientiousness (52.3) and a lower score on Extraversion (48.3). There were no significant differences on Neuroticism (49.7). CONCLUSIONS: People who work as homeopaths can be described as open to new and different ideas, and as caring, understanding, and altruistic persons. Therefore, there is reason to believe that these dispositions are central in choosing homeopathy as an occupation. Further research should investigate whether personality traits are associated with important occupational areas such as job satisfaction, occupational stability, or income.