Cost of Acute and Sequelae Care for Japanese Encephalitis Patients, Bangladesh, 2011-2021.

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is associated with an immense social and economic burden. Published cost-of-illness data come primarily from decades-old studies. To determine the cost of care for patients with acute JE and initial and long-term sequelae from the societal perspective, we recruited patients with laboratory-confirmed JE from the past 10 years of JE surveillance in Bangladesh and categorized them as acute care, initial sequalae, and long-term sequelae patients. Among 157 patients, we categorized 55 as acute, 65 as initial sequelae (53 as both categories), and 90 as long-term sequelae. The average (median) societal cost of an acute JE episode was US $929 ($909), of initial sequelae US $75 ($33), and of long-term sequelae US $47 ($14). Most families perceived the effect of JE on their well-being to be extreme and had sustained debt for JE expenses. Our data about the high cost of JE can be used by decision makers in Bangladesh.

Risk-based Vaccines and the Need for Risk-based Subnational Vaccination Strategies for Introduction.

BACKGROUND: Most vaccines in the Expanded Program on Immunization are universal childhood vaccines (eg, measles and rotavirus vaccines). Other vaccines such as typhoid conjugate (TCV) and Japanese encephalitis vaccines are risk based and only used in countries where populations are at risk of these diseases. However, strategies to introduce risk-based vaccines are becoming complex due to increasing intracountry variability in disease incidence. There is a need to assess whether subnational vaccine strategies are appropriate. CRITERIA, CHALLENGES, AND BENEFITS: Subnational strategies consider intracountry heterogeneous risk and prioritize vaccination only in those areas that are at risk; there is no intent to introduce the vaccine nationally. The following variables should be considered to determine appropriateness of subnational strategies: disease burden, outbreak potential, treatment availability and costs, cost-effectiveness, and availability of other preventive interventions. We propose criteria for each variable and use a hypothetical country considering TCV introduction to show how criteria are applied to determine if a subnational strategy is appropriate. Challenges include granularity of disease-burden data, political challenges of vaccinating only a portion of a population, and potentially higher costs of introduction. Benefits include targeted reduction of disease burden, increased equity for marginalized populations, and progress on development goals. CONCLUSIONS: In the absence of perfect information at the national level, adopting a subnational vaccine strategy can provide country decision makers with an alternative to national vaccine introduction. Given the changing nature of communicable disease burden, subnational vaccination may be a tool to effectively avert mortality and morbidity while maximizing the use of available health and financial resources.

Japanese Encephalitis Virus as Cause of Acute Encephalitis, Bhutan.

In 2011, Bhutan's Royal Centre for Disease Control began Japanese encephalitis (JE) surveillance at 5 sentinel hospitals throughout Bhutan. During 2011-2018, a total of 20 JE cases were detected, indicating JE virus causes encephalitis in Bhutan. Maintaining JE surveillance will help improve understanding of JE epidemiology in this country.

Introduction of Typhoid Conjugate Vaccines in Africa and Asia.

Typhoid fever continues to be a major public health concern, particularly in many low- and middle-income countries. The current threats of increasing antimicrobial resistance, urbanization, and climate change elevate the urgency for better prevention and control efforts for typhoid fever. In 2017, the results of ground-breaking research on typhoid conjugate vaccines (TCVs), the World Health Organization prequalification of a TCV, and global policy and financing decisions have set the stage for the introduction of TCVs into routine immunization programs in endemic countries. Country-level decision-making and program planning are critical for local uptake and sustainability.

Accelerating Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine Introduction: What Can Be Learned From Prior New Vaccine Introduction Initiatives?

The health consequences of typhoid, including increasing prevalence of drug-resistant strains, can stress healthcare systems. While vaccination is one of the most successful and cost-effective health interventions, vaccine introduction can take years and require considerable effort. The Typhoid Vaccine Acceleration Consortium (TyVAC) employs an integrated, proactive approach to accelerate the introduction of a new typhoid conjugate vaccine to reduce the burden of typhoid in countries eligible for support from Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance. TyVAC and its partners are executing a plan, informed by prior successful vaccine introductions, and tailored to the nuances of typhoid disease and the typhoid conjugate vaccine. The iterative process detailed herein summarizes the strategy and experience gained from the first 2 years of the project.

Japanese Encephalitis Surveillance and Immunization - Asia and Western Pacific Regions, 2016.

Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus is the most important vaccine-preventable cause of encephalitis in the Asia-Pacific region. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends integration of JE vaccination into national immunization schedules in all areas where the disease is a public health priority (1). This report updates a previous summary of JE surveillance and immunization programs in Asia and the Western Pacific in 2012 (2). Since 2012, funding for JE immunization has become available through the GAVI Alliance, three JE vaccines have been WHO-prequalified,* and an updated WHO JE vaccine position paper providing guidance on JE vaccines and vaccination strategies has been published (1). Data for this report were obtained from a survey of JE surveillance and immunization practices administered to health officials in countries with JE virus transmission risk, the 2015 WHO/United Nations Children's Fund Joint Reporting Form on Immunization, notes and reports from JE meetings held during 2014-2016, published literature, and websites. In 2016, 22 (92%) of 24 countries with JE virus transmission risk conducted JE surveillance, an increase from 18 (75%) countries in 2012, and 12 (50%) countries had a JE immunization program, compared with 11 (46%) countries in 2012. Strengthened JE surveillance, continued commitment, and adequate resources for JE vaccination should help maintain progress toward prevention and control of JE.

Namibia's transition from whole blood-derived pooled platelets to single-donor apheresis platelet collections.

BACKGROUND: Few African countries separate blood donations into components; however, demand for platelets (PLTs) is increasing as regional capacity to treat causes of thrombocytopenia, including chemotherapy, increases. Namibia introduced single-donor apheresis PLT collections in 2007 to increase PLT availability while reducing exposure to multiple donors via pooling. This study describes the impact this transition had on PLT availability and safety in Namibia. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Annual national blood collections and PLT units issued data were extracted from a database maintained by the Blood Transfusion Service of Namibia (NAMBTS). Production costs and unit prices were analyzed. RESULTS: In 2006, NAMBTS issued 771 single and pooled PLT doses from 3054 whole blood (WB) donations (drawn from 18,422 WB donations). In 2007, NAMBTS issued 486 single and pooled PLT doses from 1477 WB donations (drawn from 18,309 WB donations) and 131 single-donor PLT doses. By 2011, NAMBTS issued 837 single-donor PLT doses per year, 99.1% of all PLT units. Of 5761 WB donations from which PLTs were made in 2006 to 2011, a total of 20 (0.35%) were from donors with confirmed test results for human immunodeficiency virus or other transfusion-transmissible infections (TTIs). Of 2315 single-donor apheresis donations between 2007 and 2011, none of the 663 donors had a confirmed positive result for any pathogen. As apheresis replaced WB-derived PLTs, apheresis production costs dropped by a mean of 8.2% per year, while pooled PLT costs increased by an annual mean of 21.5%. Unit prices paid for apheresis- and WB-derived PLTs increased by 9 and 7.4% per year on average, respectively. CONCLUSION: Namibia's PLT transition shows that collections from repeat apheresis donors can reduce TTI risk and production costs.

Granulocyte transfusion therapy.

Bacterial and fungal infections continue to be a major cause of morbidity and mortality in severely neutropenic patients undergoing aggressive chemotherapy regimens or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Traditional granulocyte transfusion therapy, a logical approach in treating these infections, has been available for many years, and several controlled studies have shown this therapy to be useful. However, granulocyte transfusion therapy fell out of favor because the results were not clinically impressive, and adverse results were reported. These disappointing results were felt to be, in part, because of the low doses of granulocytes provided. More recent studies have attempted to increase the numbers of transfused cells by stimulating normal granulocyte donors with G-CSF (+/-corticosteroids). With these techniques, the number of granulocytes transfused can be increased 3-4 fold. The cells have been shown to circulate in recipients, and daily transfusions are capable of maintaining normal or near-normal blood neutrophil counts in previously severely neutropenic patients. The cells appear to function normally by a variety of in vitro and in vivo tests. Clinical benefit, as defined by survival or clearance of infection, has not been definitively determined. Results of an ongoing randomized controlled clinical trial should be available in the near future.

Impact of vaccination against Japanese encephalitis in endemic countries.

BACKGROUND: Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus is the leading cause of vaccine-preventable encephalitis and a significant cause of disability in Asia and the western Pacific. Many countries have introduced JE vaccination programs, including several low resource countries following WHO's prioritization of JE vaccination in 2006. We sought to characterize the public health impact of JE vaccination programs. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: JE case data and vaccination coverage rates, were requested from country health officials in 23 JE endemic countries and Chinese Taipei. Additional data were extracted from meeting presentations and published literature. JE incidence was compared before and after vaccination using a minimum three year period pre and post program introduction or expansion. Data suitable for analysis were available for 13 JE-endemic countries and Chinese Taipei, for either all age groups or for children aged under 15 years only. Five countries and Chinese Taipei introduced vaccine prior to 2006 and the all-age JE incidence was reduced by 73-100% in about 5-20 years following introduction. Six countries have introduced JE vaccine since 2006, and JE incidence in children aged younger than 15 years has been reduced by 14-79% as of 2015-2021. JE-specific data were unavailable before introduction in Thailand and Vietnam, but vaccination programs reduced acute encephalitis incidence by 80% and 74%, respectively. Even in the programs with greatest impact, it took several years to achieve their results. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: JE vaccination has greatly reduced JE in 13 JE-endemic countries and Chinese Taipei. Highest impact has been observed in countries that introduced prior to 2006, but it often took roughly two decades and substantial resources to achieve that level of success. For greatest possible impact, more recently introducing countries and funding agencies should commit to continuous improvements in delivery systems to sustain coverage after initial vaccine introduction.

Estimating the cost of illness of acute Japanese encephalitis and sequelae care in Vietnam and Laos: A cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a leading cause of acute encephalitis syndrome and resulting neurological disability in Asia and the Western Pacific. This study aims to estimate the cost of acute care, initial rehabilitation and sequelae care, in Vietnam and Laos. METHODOLOGY: We conducted a cross-sectional retrospective study using a micro-costing approach from the health system and household perspectives. Out-of-pocket direct medical and non-medical costs, indirect costs, and family impact were reported by patients and/or caregivers. Hospitalization costs were extracted from hospital charts. Acute costs covered expenditures from pre-hospital to follow-up visits while sequelae care costs were estimated from expenditures in the last 90 days. All costs are in 2021 US dollars. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: 242 patients in two major sentinel sites in the North and South of Vietnam and 65 patients in a central hospital in Vientiane, Laos, with laboratory-confirmed JE were recruited regardless of age, sex, and ethnicity. In Vietnam, the mean total cost was $3,371 per acute JE episode (median $2,071, standard error [SE] $464) while annual costs were $404 for initial sequelae care (median $0, SE $220) and $320 for long-term sequelae care (median $0, SE $108). In Laos, the mean hospitalization costs in acute stage were $2,005 (median $1,698, SE $279) and the mean annual costs were $2,317 (median $0, SE $2,233) for initial sequelae care and $89 (median $0, SE $57) for long-term sequelae care. In both countries, most patients did not seek care for their sequelae. Families perceived extreme impact from JE and 20% to 30% of households still had sustained debts years after acute JE. CONCLUSIONS: JE patients and families in Vietnam and Laos suffer extreme medical, economic, and social hardship. This has policy implications for improving JE prevention in these two JE-endemic countries.

Laboratory practices and incidence of non-O157 shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infections.

We surveyed laboratories in Washington State, USA, and found that increased use of Shiga toxin assays correlated with increased reported incidence of non-O157 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) infections during 2005-2010. Despite increased assay use, only half of processed stool specimens underwent Shiga toxin testing during 2010, suggesting substantial underdetection of non-O157 STEC infections.

Antibody persistence and immune memory response following primary vaccination and boosting with live attenuated SA 14-14-2 Japanese encephalitis vaccine (CD-JEV) in Bangladesh: A phase 4 open-label clinical trial.

INTRODUCTION: Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus is one of the leading causes of viral encephalitis across temperate and tropical zones of Asia. The live attenuated SA 14-14-2 JE vaccine (CD-JEV) is one of three vaccines prequalified by the World Health Organization (WHO) to prevent JE. WHO currently recommends a single CD-JEV dose for infants in endemic settings. However, in the absence of long-term immunogenicity data, WHO has indicated a need for long-term immunogenicity studies to inform optimal dosing schedules and determine the need for booster doses. METHODS: This Phase 4, open-label clinical study measured neutralizing antibody (NAb) titers in Bangladeshi children three and four years after primary CD-JEV vaccination and 7 and 28 days after a booster CD-JEV vaccination given four years after primary vaccination. The study also assessed the tolerability and safety of the booster dose. A NAb titer of ≥1:10 was considered seroprotective. RESULTS: Of 560 children vaccinated between 10 and 12 months of age with CD-JEV three years earlier and enrolled in this study from 30 July 2015 through 03 January 2016, 52 (9.3%; 95% CI: 7.2-12.0) had a seroprotective titer at enrollment. One year later, of 533 children, 66 (12.4%; 95% CI: 9.9-15.5) had a seroprotective titer before receiving a booster dose. Of 524 children who received a booster CD-JEV dose, 479 (91.4%; 95% CI: 88.7-93.5) and 514 (98.1%; 95% CI: 96.5-99.0) were seroprotected 7 and 28 days later, respectively. The geometric mean titer (GMT) was 6 (95% CI: 6-6) at baseline, 105 (95% CI: 93-119) 7 days post-booster, and 167 (95% CI: 152-183) 28 days post-booster. No vaccine-associated neurologic adverse events or other serious adverse events were noted following the booster dose. CONCLUSIONS: Although most children did not have measurable antibody titers three and four years after a single primary CD-JEV dose, more than 90% of seronegative children had a strong anamnestic response within one week of a booster dose. This suggests that these children were immune despite the absence of measurable NAb prior to their booster.ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02514746.

Estimated global incidence of Japanese encephalitis: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To update the estimated global incidence of Japanese encephalitis (JE) using recent data for the purpose of guiding prevention and control efforts. METHODS: Thirty-two areas endemic for JE in 24 Asian and Western Pacific countries were sorted into 10 incidence groups on the basis of published data and expert opinion. Population-based surveillance studies using laboratory-confirmed cases were sought for each incidence group by a computerized search of the scientific literature. When no eligible studies existed for a particular incidence group, incidence data were extrapolated from related groups. FINDINGS: A total of 12 eligible studies representing 7 of 10 incidence groups in 24 JE-endemic countries were identified. Approximately 67,900 JE cases typically occur annually (overall incidence: 1.8 per 100,000), of which only about 10% are reported to the World Health Organization. Approximately 33,900 (50%) of these cases occur in China (excluding Taiwan) and approximately 51,000 (75%) occur in children aged 0-14 years (incidence: 5.4 per 100,000). Approximately 55,000 (81%) cases occur in areas with well established or developing JE vaccination programmes, while approximately 12,900 (19%) occur in areas with minimal or no JE vaccination programmes. CONCLUSION: Recent data allowed us to refine the estimate of the global incidence of JE, which remains substantial despite improvements in vaccination coverage. More and better incidence studies in selected countries, particularly China and India, are needed to further refine these estimates.

Age as an independent risk factor for intensive care unit admission or death due to 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus infection.

OBJECTIVE: This study evaluated risk factors for intensive care unit (ICU) admission or death among people hospitalized with 2009 pandemic influenza A (pH1N1) virus infection. METHODS: We based analyses on data collected in Washington State from April 27 to September 18, 2009, on deceased or hospitalized people with laboratory-confirmed pH1N1 infection reported by health-care providers and hospitals as part of enhanced public health surveillance. We used bivariate analyses and multivariable logistic regression to identify risk factors associated with ICU admission or death due to pH1N1. RESULTS: We identified 123 patients admitted to the hospital but not an ICU and 61 patients who were admitted to an ICU or died. Independent of high-risk medical conditions, both older age and delayed time to hospital admission were identified as risk factors for ICU admission or death due to pH1N1. Specifically, the odds of ICU admission or death were 4.44 times greater among adults aged 18-49 years (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.97, 10.02) and 5.93 times greater among adults aged 50-64 years (95% CI 2.24, 15.65) compared with pediatric patients < 18 years of age. Likewise, hospitalized cases admitted more than two days after illness onset had 2.17 times higher odds of ICU admission or death than those admitted within two days of illness onset (95% CI 1.10, 4.25). CONCLUSION: Although certain medical conditions clearly influence the need for hospitalization among people infected with pH1N1 virus, older age and delayed time to admission each played an independent role in the progression to ICU admission or death among hospitalized patients.

Vaccines to Prevent Meningitis: Historical Perspectives and Future Directions.

Despite advances in the development and introduction of vaccines against the major bacterial causes of meningitis, the disease and its long-term after-effects remain a problem globally. The Global Roadmap to Defeat Meningitis by 2030 aims to accelerate progress through visionary and strategic goals that place a major emphasis on preventing meningitis via vaccination. Global vaccination against Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib) is the most advanced, such that successful and low-cost combination vaccines incorporating Hib are broadly available. More affordable pneumococcal conjugate vaccines are becoming increasingly available, although countries ineligible for donor support still face access challenges and global serotype coverage is incomplete with existing licensed vaccines. Meningococcal disease control in Africa has progressed with the successful deployment of a low-cost serogroup A conjugate vaccine, but other serogroups still cause outbreaks in regions of the world where broadly protective and affordable vaccines have not been introduced into routine immunization programs. Progress has lagged for prevention of neonatal meningitis and although maternal vaccination against the leading cause, group B streptococcus (GBS), has progressed into clinical trials, no GBS vaccine has thus far reached Phase 3 evaluation. This article examines current and future efforts to control meningitis through vaccination.

Zoonotic transmission of avian influenza virus (H5N1), Egypt, 2006-2009.

During March 2006-March 2009, a total of 6,355 suspected cases of avian influenza (H5N1) were reported to the Ministry of Health in Egypt. Sixty-three (1%) patients had confirmed infections; 24 (38%) died. Risk factors for death included female sex, age > or = 15 years, and receiving the first dose of oseltamivir >2 days after illness onset. All but 2 case-patients reported exposure to domestic poultry probably infected with avian influenza virus (H5N1). No cases of human-to-human transmission were found. Greatest risks for infection and death were reported among women > or = 15 years of age, who accounted for 38% of infections and 83% of deaths. The lower case-fatality rate in Egypt could be caused by a less virulent virus clade. However, the lower mortality rate seems to be caused by the large number of infected children who were identified early, received prompt treatment, and had less severe clinical disease.

Persistence of IgM Antibodies after Vaccination with Live Attenuated Japanese Encephalitis Vaccine.

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a vaccine-preventable, mosquito-borne disease. Substantial progress with JE control in Asia has been made during the past decade, with most endemic countries now having JE vaccination programs, commonly using live attenuated SA14-14-2 JE vaccine (trade name CD-JEV). If a child develops encephalitis during the weeks to months following CD-JEV vaccination and anti-JE virus IgM (JE IgM) antibody is detected in serum, the question arises if this is JE virus infection indicating vaccine failure, or persistent JE IgM antibody postvaccination. To better understand JE IgM seropositivity following vaccination, sera from 268 children from a previous CD-JEV study were tested by two different JE IgM assays to determine JE IgM antibody frequency on days 28, 180, and 365 postvaccination. With the CDC JE IgM antibody capture ELISA (MAC-ELISA), 110 children (41%) had JE IgM positive or equivocal results on their day 28 sample, and eight (3%) and two (1%) had positive or equivocal results on day 180 and day 365 samples, respectively. With the InBios JE Detect™ MAC-ELISA (Seattle, WA), 118 (44%) children had positive or equivocal results on day 28 sample, and three (1%) and one (0.4%) had positive or equivocal results on day 180 and day 365 samples, respectively. Our results indicate that more than 40% children vaccinated with CD-JEV can have JE IgM antibodies in their serum at 1 month postvaccination but JE IgM antibody is rare by 6 months. These data will help healthcare workers assess the likelihood that JE IgM antibodies in the serum of a child with encephalitis after vaccination are vaccine related.

Immunogenicity and safety of concurrent or sequential administration of live, attenuated SA 14-14-2 Japanese encephalitis vaccine (CD-JEV) and measles-mumps-rubella vaccine in infants 9-12 months of age in the Philippines: A non-inferiority Phase 4 randomized clinical trial.

INTRODUCTION: Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus is the leading cause of viral encephalitis across temperate and tropical zones of Asia. The live attenuated SA 14-14-2 JE vaccine (CD-JEV) is one of three vaccines prequalified by the World Health Organization (WHO) to prevent JE. When incorporating a new vaccine into a country's Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI), it is important to show that the new vaccine can be administered concurrently with other routine pediatric vaccines without impairing the immune responses or changing the safety profiles of the co-administered vaccines. This Phase 4 open-label study evaluated the safety and immunogenicity of measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine co-administered with CD-JEV. METHODS: The study randomized 628 healthy Filipino children aged between 9 and 10 months to receive MMR and CD-JEV concurrently or separately. MMR immunogenicity was measured 56 days after MMR vaccination using a measles plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT), anti-mumps immunoglobulin G (IgG) enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and anti-rubella IgG ELISA, respectively. Neutralizing antibody against JE virus was measured 28 days after CD-JEV vaccination using PRNT. Safety was assessed through solicitation of immediate reactions, adverse events (AEs) within 14 days of vaccination, unsolicited AEs occurring within 28 days, and serious adverse events (SAEs) during participation in the study. RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: During the study, no post-vaccinal encephalitis cases or related SAEs were reported in either group. Concurrent immunization with CD-JEV and MMR vaccines was not associated with any unusual safety signals when compared with sequential immunization. No significant differences between the regimens were seen in seropositivity or serology titer/concentration results for any of the antigens. Co-administration of CD-JEV and MMR was non-inferior to single administration of either vaccine.

Japanese encephalitis vaccination in the Philippines: A cost-effectiveness analysis comparing alternative delivery strategies.

INTRODUCTION: Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a mosquito-borne viral infection of the brain that can cause permanent brain damage and death. In the Philippines, efforts are underway to deliver a live attenuated JE vaccine (CD-JEV) to children under five years of age (YOA), who are disproportionately infected. Multiple vaccination strategies are being considered. METHODS: We conducted a cost-effectiveness analysis comparing three vaccination strategies to the current state of no vaccination from the societal and government perspectives: (1) national routine vaccination only, (2) sub-national campaign followed by national routine, and (3) national campaign followed by national routine. We developed a Markov model to estimate impact of vaccination or no vaccination over the child's lifetime horizon, assuming an annual incidence of 10.6 cases per 100,000. Costs of illness ($859/case), vaccine ($0.50/dose), routine vaccination ($0.95/dose), and campaign vaccination ($0.98/dose) were based on hospital financial records, expert opinion and literature. The societal perspective included transportation and opportunity costs of caregiver time, in addition to costs incurred by the health system. RESULTS: JE vaccination via national campaign followed by national routine delivery was the most cost-effective strategy modeled with a cost per disability adjusted life year (DALY) averted of $233 and $29 from the government and societal perspectives, respectively. Results were similar for other delivery strategies with cost/DALY ranging from $233 to $265 from the government perspective and $29-$57 from the societal perspective. JE vaccination was projected to prevent 27,856-37,277 cases, 5571-7455 deaths, and 173,233-230,704 DALYs among children under five over 20 consecutive birth cohorts. Total incremental costs of vaccination versus no vaccination over 20 birth cohorts were $6.6-$9.8 million from the societal perspective ($230 K-$440 K annually) and $45.9-$53.9 million ($2.2 M-$2.7 M annually) from the governmental perspective. CONCLUSION: Vaccination with CD-JEV in the Philippines is projected to be cost-effective, reducing long-term costs associated with JE illness and improving health outcomes compared to no vaccination.