Carboxyl Methyltransferase Catalysed Formation of Mono- and Dimethyl Esters under Aqueous Conditions: Application in Cascade Biocatalysis.

Carboxyl methyltransferase (CMT) enzymes catalyse the biomethylation of carboxylic acids under aqueous conditions and have potential for use in synthetic enzyme cascades. Herein we report that the enzyme FtpM from Aspergillus fumigatus can methylate a broad range of aromatic mono- and dicarboxylic acids in good to excellent conversions. The enzyme shows high regioselectivity on its natural substrate fumaryl-l-tyrosine, trans, trans-muconic acid and a number of the dicarboxylic acids tested. Dicarboxylic acids are generally better substrates than monocarboxylic acids, although some substituents are able to compensate for the absence of a second acid group. For dicarboxylic acids, the second methylation shows strong pH dependency with an optimum at pH 5.5-6. Potential for application in industrial biotechnology was demonstrated in a cascade for the production of a bioplastics precursor (FDME) from bioderived 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF).

Caenorhabditis elegans dnj-14, the orthologue of the DNAJC5 gene mutated in adult onset neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, provides a new platform for neuroprotective drug screening and identifies a SIR-2.1-independent action of resveratrol.

Adult onset neuronal lipofuscinosis (ANCL) is a human neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive neuronal dysfunction and premature death. Recently, the mutations that cause ANCL were mapped to the DNAJC5 gene, which encodes cysteine string protein alpha. We show here that mutating dnj-14, the Caenorhabditis elegans orthologue of DNAJC5, results in shortened lifespan and a small impairment of locomotion and neurotransmission. Mutant dnj-14 worms also exhibited age-dependent neurodegeneration of sensory neurons, which was preceded by severe progressive chemosensory defects. A focussed chemical screen revealed that resveratrol could ameliorate dnj-14 mutant phenotypes, an effect mimicked by the cAMP phosphodiesterase inhibitor, rolipram. In contrast to other worm neurodegeneration models, activation of the Sirtuin, SIR-2.1, was not required, as sir-2.1; dnj-14 double mutants showed full lifespan rescue by resveratrol. The Sirtuin-independent neuroprotective action of resveratrol revealed here suggests potential therapeutic applications for ANCL and possibly other human neurodegenerative diseases.

GeneMill: A 21st century platform for innovation.

GeneMill officially launched on 4th February 2016 and is an open access academic facility located at The University of Liverpool that has been established for the high-throughput construction and testing of synthetic DNA constructs. GeneMill provides end-to-end design, construction and phenotypic characterization of small to large gene constructs or genetic circuits/pathways for academic and industrial applications. Thus, GeneMill is equipping the scientific community with easy access to the validated tools required to explore the possibilities of Synthetic Biology.

Generation and characterization of a lysosomally targeted, genetically encoded Ca(2+)-sensor.

Distinct spatiotemporal Ca2+ signalling events regulate fundamental aspects of eukaryotic cell physiology. Complex Ca2+ signals can be driven by release of Ca2+ from intracellular organelles that sequester Ca2+ such as the ER (endoplasmic reticulum) or through the opening of Ca2+-permeable channels in the plasma membrane and influx of extracellular Ca2+. Late endocytic pathway compartments including late-endosomes and lysosomes have recently been observed to sequester Ca2+ to levels comparable with those found within the ER lumen. These organelles harbour ligand-gated Ca2+-release channels and evidence indicates that they can operate as Ca2+-signalling platforms. Lysosomes sequester Ca2+ to a greater extent than any other endocytic compartment, and signalling from this organelle has been postulated to provide 'trigger' release events that can subsequently elicit more extensive Ca2+ signals from stores including the ER. In order to investigate lysosomal-specific Ca2+ signalling a simple method for measuring lysosomal Ca2+ release is essential. In the present study we describe the generation and characterization of a genetically encoded, lysosomally targeted, cameleon sensor which is capable of registering specific Ca2+ release in response to extracellular agonists and intracellular second messengers. This probe represents a novel tool that will permit detailed investigations examining the impact of lysosomal Ca2+ handling on cellular physiology.

Rational design of a cyclohexanone dehydrogenase for enhanced α,ß-desaturation and substrate specificity.

The selective α,ß-desaturation of cyclic carbonyl compounds, which are found in the core of many steroid and bioactive molecules, using green chemistry is highly desirable. To achieve this task, we have for the first time described and solved the de novo structure of a member of the cyclohexanone dehydrogenase class of enzymes. The breadth of substrate specificity was investigated by assaying the cyclohexanone dehydrogenase, from Alicycliphilus denitrificans, against several cyclic ketones, lactones and lactams. To investigate substrate binding, a catalytic variant, Y195F, was generated and used to obtain a crystallographic complex with the natural substrate, cyclohexanone. This revealed substrate-active site interactions, as well as the proximity of the cofactor, flavin adenine dinucleotide, and enabled us to propose a mechanistic function to key amino acids. We then used molecular dynamic simulations to guide design to add functionality to the cyclohexanone dehydrogenase enzyme. The resulting W113A variant had overall improved enzyme activity and substrate scope, i.e., accepting the bulkier carbonyl compound, dihydrocoumarin. Structural analysis of the W113A variant revealed a broader, more open active site, which helped explain the modified substrate specificity. This work paves the way for future bespoke regioselective α,ß-desaturation in the synthesis of important bioactive molecules via rational enzyme engineering.

Solution NMR structure of the Ca2+-bound N-terminal domain of CaBP7: a regulator of golgi trafficking.

Calcium-binding protein 7 (CaBP7) is a member of the calmodulin (CaM) superfamily that harbors two high affinity EF-hand motifs and a C-terminal transmembrane domain. CaBP7 has been previously shown to interact with and modulate phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase III-ß (PI4KIIIß) activity in in vitro assays and affects vesicle transport in neurons when overexpressed. Here we show that the N-terminal domain (NTD) of CaBP7 is sufficient to mediate the interaction of CaBP7 with PI4KIIIß. CaBP7 NTD encompasses the two high affinity Ca(2+) binding sites, and structural characterization through multiangle light scattering, circular dichroism, and NMR reveals unique properties for this domain. CaBP7 NTD binds specifically to Ca(2+) but not Mg(2+) and undergoes significant conformational changes in both secondary and tertiary structure upon Ca(2+) binding. The Ca(2+)-bound form of CaBP7 NTD is monomeric and exhibits an open conformation similar to that of CaM. Ca(2+)-bound CaBP7 NTD has a solvent-exposed hydrophobic surface that is more expansive than observed in CaM or CaBP1. Within this hydrophobic pocket, there is a significant reduction in the number of methionine residues that are conserved in CaM and CaBP1 and shown to be important for target recognition. In CaBP7 NTD, these residues are replaced with isoleucine and leucine residues with branched side chains that are intrinsically more rigid than the flexible methionine side chain. We propose that these differences in surface hydrophobicity, charge, and methionine content may be important in determining highly specific interactions of CaBP7 with target proteins, such as PI4KIIIß.

Membrane targeting of the EF-hand containing calcium-sensing proteins CaBP7 and CaBP8.

The CaBP family of EF-hand containing small Ca(2+)-binding proteins have recently emerged as important regulators of multiple targets essential to normal neuronal function in the mammalian central nervous system. Of particular interest are CaBP7 and CaBP8, abundantly expressed brain proteins that exhibit the greatest sequence divergence from other family members. In this study, we have analysed their sub-cellular localisations in a model neuronal (Neuro2A) cell line and show that both proteins exhibit a membrane distribution distinct from the other CaBPs and consistent with localisation to the trans-Golgi network (TGN). Furthermore, we show that their localisation to the TGN critically depends upon an unusual predicted C-terminal transmembrane domain that if deleted or disrupted has dramatic consequences for protein targeting. CaBP7 and 8, therefore, possess a targeting mechanism that is unique amongst the CaBPs that may contribute to differential functional Ca(2+)-sensing by these family members.

Calcium Sensors in Neuronal Function and Dysfunction.

Calcium signaling in neurons as in other cell types can lead to varied changes in cellular function. Neuronal Ca2+ signaling processes have also become adapted to modulate the function of specific pathways over a wide variety of time domains and these can have effects on, for example, axon outgrowth, neuronal survival, and changes in synaptic strength. Ca2+ also plays a key role in synapses as the trigger for fast neurotransmitter release. Given its physiological importance, abnormalities in neuronal Ca2+ signaling potentially underlie many different neurological and neurodegenerative diseases. The mechanisms by which changes in intracellular Ca2+ concentration in neurons can bring about diverse responses is underpinned by the roles of ubiquitous or specialized neuronal Ca2+ sensors. It has been established that synaptotagmins have key functions in neurotransmitter release, and, in addition to calmodulin, other families of EF-hand-containing neuronal Ca2+ sensors, including the neuronal calcium sensor (NCS) and the calcium-binding protein (CaBP) families, play important physiological roles in neuronal Ca2+ signaling. It has become increasingly apparent that these various Ca2+ sensors may also be crucial for aspects of neuronal dysfunction and disease either indirectly or directly as a direct consequence of genetic variation or mutations. An understanding of the molecular basis for the regulation of the targets of the Ca2+ sensors and the physiological roles of each protein in identified neurons may contribute to future approaches to the development of treatments for a variety of human neuronal disorders.

Leaf LIMS: A Flexible Laboratory Information Management System with a Synthetic Biology Focus.

This paper presents Leaf LIMS, a flexible laboratory information management system (LIMS) designed to address the complexity of synthetic biology workflows. At the project's inception there was a lack of a LIMS designed specifically to address synthetic biology processes, with most systems focused on either next generation sequencing or biobanks and clinical sample handling. Leaf LIMS implements integrated project, item, and laboratory stock tracking, offering complete sample and construct genealogy, materials and lot tracking, and modular assay data capture. Hence, it enables highly configurable task-based workflows and supports data capture from project inception to completion. As such, in addition to it supporting synthetic biology it is ideal for many laboratory environments with multiple projects and users. The system is deployed as a web application through Docker and is provided under a permissive MIT license. It is freely available for download at https://leaflims.github.io .

Interaction of ARF-1.1 and neuronal calcium sensor-1 in the control of the temperature-dependency of locomotion in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Neuronal calcium sensor-1 (NCS-1) mediates changes in cellular function by regulating various target proteins. Many potential targets have been identified but the physiological significance of only a few has been established. Upon temperature elevation, Caenorhabditis elegans exhibits reversible paralysis. In the absence of NCS-1, worms show delayed onset and a shorter duration of paralysis. This phenotype can be rescued by re-expression of ncs-1 in AIY neurons. Mutants with defects in four potential NCS-1 targets (arf-1.1, pifk-1, trp-1 and trp-2) showed qualitatively similar phenotypes to ncs-1 null worms, although the effect of pifk-1 mutation on time to paralysis was considerably delayed. Inhibition of pifk-1 also resulted in a locomotion phenotype. Analysis of double mutants showed no additive effects between mutations in ncs-1 and trp-1 or trp-2. In contrast, double mutants of arf-1.1 and ncs-1 had an intermediate phenotype, consistent with NCS-1 and ARF-1.1 acting in the same pathway. Over-expression of arf-1.1 in the AIY neurons was sufficient to rescue partially the phenotype of both the arf-1.1 and the ncs-1 null worms. These findings suggest that ARF-1.1 interacts with NCS-1 in AIY neurons and potentially pifk-1 in the Ca(2+) signaling pathway that leads to inhibited locomotion at an elevated temperature.

Small Heat Shock Proteins Are Novel Common Determinants of Alcohol and Nicotine Sensitivity in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Addiction to drugs is strongly determined by multiple genetic factors. Alcohol and nicotine produce distinct pharmacological effects within the nervous system through discrete molecular targets; yet, data from family and twin analyses support the existence of common genetic factors for addiction in general. The mechanisms underlying addiction, however, are poorly described and common genetic factors for alcohol and nicotine remain unidentified. We investigated the role that the heat shock transcription factor, HSF-1, and its downstream effectors played as common genetic modulators of sensitivity to addictive substances. Using Caenorhabditis elegans, an exemplary model organism with substance dose-dependent responses similar to mammals, we demonstrate that HSF-1 altered sensitivity to both alcohol and nicotine. Using a combination of a targeted RNAi screen of downstream factors and transgenic approaches we identified that these effects were contingent upon the constitutive neuronal expression of HSP-16.48, a small heat shock protein (HSP) homolog of human α-crystallin. Furthermore we demonstrated that the function of HSP-16.48 in drug sensitivity surprisingly was independent of chaperone activity during the heat shock stress response. Instead we identified a distinct domain within the N-terminal region of the HSP-16.48 protein that specified its function in comparison to related small HSPs. Our findings establish and characterize a novel genetic determinant underlying sensitivity to diverse addictive substances.

Modulation of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate levels by CaBP7 controls cytokinesis in mammalian cells.

Calcium and phosphoinositide signaling regulate cell division in model systems, but their significance in mammalian cells is unclear. Calcium-binding protein-7 (CaBP7) is a phosphatidylinositol 4-kinaseIIIß (PI4KIIIß) inhibitor required during cytokinesis in mammalian cells, hinting at a link between these pathways. Here we characterize a novel association of CaBP7 with lysosomes that cluster at the intercellular bridge during cytokinesis in HeLa cells. We show that CaBP7 regulates lysosome clustering and that PI4KIIIß is essential for normal cytokinesis. CaBP7 depletion induces lysosome mislocalization, extension of intercellular bridge lifetime, and cytokinesis failure. These data connect phosphoinositide and calcium pathways to lysosome localization and normal cytokinesis in mammalian cells.

Expression profile of a Caenorhabditis elegans model of adult neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis reveals down regulation of ubiquitin E3 ligase components.

Cysteine string protein (CSP) is a chaperone of the Dnaj/Hsp40 family of proteins and is essential for synaptic maintenance. Mutations in the human gene encoding CSP, DNAJC5, cause adult neuronal ceroid lipofucinosis (ANCL) which is characterised by progressive dementia, movement disorders, seizures and premature death. CSP null models in mice, flies and worms have been shown to also exhibit similar neurodegenerative phenotypes. Here we have explored the mechanisms underlying ANCL disease progression using Caenorhaditis elegans mutant strains of dnj-14, the worm orthologue of DNAJC5. Transcriptional profiling of these mutants compared to control strains revealed a broad down-regulation of ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS)-related genes, in particular, components of multimeric RING E3 ubiquitin ligases including F-Box, SKR and BTB proteins. These data were supported by the observation that dnj-14 mutant worm strains expressing a GFP-tagged ubiquitin fusion degradation substrate exhibited decreased ubiquitylated protein degradation. The results indicate that disruption of an essential synaptic chaperone leads to changes in expression levels of UPS-related proteins which has a knock-on effect on overall protein degradation in C. elegans. The specific over-representation of E3 ubiquitin ligase components revealed in our study, suggests that proteins and complexes upstream of the proteasome itself may be beneficial therapeutic targets.

Erratum to: Ethosuximide ameliorates neurodegenerative disease phenotypes by modulating DAF-16/FOXO target gene expression.

The original version of this article [1] unfortunately contained a mistake. The author list contained a spelling error for the author Hannah V. McCue. The original article has been corrected for this error. The corrected author list is given below:Xi Chen, Hannah V. McCue, Shi Quan Wong, Sudhanva S. Kashyap, Brian C. Kraemer, Jeff W. Barclay, Robert D. Burgoyne and Alan Morgan

Ethosuximide ameliorates neurodegenerative disease phenotypes by modulating DAF-16/FOXO target gene expression.

BACKGROUND: Many neurodegenerative diseases are associated with protein misfolding/aggregation. Treatments mitigating the effects of such common pathological processes, rather than disease-specific symptoms, therefore have general therapeutic potential. RESULTS: Here we report that the anti-epileptic drug ethosuximide rescues the short lifespan and chemosensory defects exhibited by C. elegans null mutants of dnj-14, the worm orthologue of the DNAJC5 gene mutated in autosomal-dominant adult-onset neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. It also ameliorates the locomotion impairment and short lifespan of worms expressing a human Tau mutant that causes frontotemporal dementia. Transcriptomic analysis revealed a highly significant up-regulation of DAF-16/FOXO target genes in response to ethosuximide; and indeed RNAi knockdown of daf-16 abolished the therapeutic effect of ethosuximide in the worm dnj-14 model. Importantly, ethosuximide also increased the expression of classical FOXO target genes and reduced protein aggregation in mammalian neuronal cells. CONCLUSIONS: We have revealed a conserved neuroprotective mechanism of action of ethosuximide from worms to mammalian neurons. Future experiments in mouse neurodegeneration models will be important to confirm the repurposing potential of this well-established anti-epileptic drug for treatment of human neurodegenerative diseases.

Evolution and functional diversity of the Calcium Binding Proteins (CaBPs).

The mammalian central nervous system (CNS) exhibits a remarkable ability to process, store, and transfer information. Key to these activities is the use of highly regulated and unique patterns of calcium signals encoded by calcium channels and decoded by families of specific calcium-sensing proteins. The largest family of eukaryotic calcium sensors is those related to the small EF-hand containing protein calmodulin (CaM). In order to maximize the usefulness of calcium as a signaling species and to permit the evolution and fine tuning of the mammalian CNS, families of related proteins have arisen that exhibit characteristic calcium binding properties and tissue-, cellular-, and sub-cellular distribution profiles. The Calcium Binding Proteins (CaBPs) represent one such family of vertebrate specific CaM like proteins that have emerged in recent years as important regulators of essential neuronal target proteins. Bioinformatic analyses indicate that the CaBPs consist of two subfamilies and that the ancestral members of these are CaBP1 and CaBP8. The CaBPs have distinct intracellular localizations based on different targeting mechanisms including a novel type-II transmembrane domain in CaBPs 7 and 8 (otherwise known as calneuron II and calneuron I, respectively). Recent work has led to the identification of new target interactions and possible functions for the CaBPs suggesting that they have multiple physiological roles with relevance for the normal functioning of the CNS.

Determination of the membrane topology of the small EF-hand Ca2+-sensing proteins CaBP7 and CaBP8.

The CaBPs represent a subfamily of small EF-hand containing calcium (Ca(2+))-sensing proteins related to calmodulin that regulate key ion channels in the mammalian nervous system. In a recent bioinformatic analyses we determined that CaBP7 and CaBP8 form an evolutionarily distinct branch within the CaBPs (also known as the calneurons) a finding that is consistent with earlier observations characterising a putative C-terminal transmembrane (TM) spanning helix in each of these proteins which is essential for their sub-cellular targeting to the Golgi apparatus and constitutive secretory vesicles. The C-terminal position of the predicted TM-helix suggests that CaBP7 and CaBP8 could be processed in a manner analogous to tail-anchored integral membrane proteins which exhibit the ability to insert across membranes post-translationally. In this study we have investigated the topology of CaBP7 and CaBP8 within cellular membranes through a combination of trypsin protection and epitope accessibility analyses. Our results indicate that the TM-helices of CaBP7 and CaBP8 insert fully across membranes such that their extreme C-termini are luminal. The observed type-II membrane topology is consistent with processing of CaBP7 and CaBP8 as true tail-anchored proteins. This targeting mechanism is distinct from any other calmodulin related Ca(2+)-sensor and conceivably underpins unique physiological functions of these proteins.

Characterisation of the interaction of the C-terminus of the dopamine D2 receptor with neuronal calcium sensor-1.

NCS-1 is a member of the neuronal calcium sensor (NCS) family of EF-hand Ca(2+) binding proteins which has been implicated in several physiological functions including regulation of neurotransmitter release, membrane traffic, voltage gated Ca(2+) channels, neuronal development, synaptic plasticity, and learning. NCS-1 binds to the dopamine D2 receptor, potentially affecting its internalisation and controlling dopamine D2 receptor surface expression. The D2 receptor binds NCS-1 via a short 16-residue cytoplasmic C-terminal tail. We have used NMR and fluorescence spectroscopy to characterise the interactions between the NCS-1/Ca(2+) and D2 peptide. The data show that NCS-1 binds D2 peptide with a K(d) of ∼14.3 µM and stoichiometry of peptide binding to NCS-1 of 2:1. NMR chemical shift mapping confirms that D2 peptide binds to the large, solvent-exposed hydrophobic groove, on one face of the NCS-1 molecule, with residues affected by the presence of the peptide spanning both the N and C-terminal portions of the protein. The NMR and mutagenesis data further show that movement of the C-terminal helix 11 of NCS-1 to fully expose the hydrophobic groove is important for D2 peptide binding. Molecular docking using restraints derived from the NMR chemical shift data, together with the experimentally-derived stoichiometry, produced a model of the complex between NCS-1 and the dopamine receptor, in which two molecules of the receptor are able to simultaneously bind to the NCS-1 monomer.

The diversity of calcium sensor proteins in the regulation of neuronal function.

Calcium signaling in neurons as in other cell types mediates changes in gene expression, cell growth, development, survival, and cell death. However, neuronal Ca(2+) signaling processes have become adapted to modulate the function of other important pathways including axon outgrowth and changes in synaptic strength. Ca(2+) plays a key role as the trigger for fast neurotransmitter release. The ubiquitous Ca(2+) sensor calmodulin is involved in various aspects of neuronal regulation. The mechanisms by which changes in intracellular Ca(2+) concentration in neurons can bring about such diverse responses has, however, become a topic of widespread interest that has recently focused on the roles of specialized neuronal Ca(2+) sensors. In this article, we summarize synaptotagmins in neurotransmitter release, the neuronal roles of calmodulin, and the functional significance of the NCS and the CaBP/calneuron protein families of neuronal Ca(2+) sensors.

Bioinformatic analysis of CaBP/calneuron proteins reveals a family of highly conserved vertebrate Ca2+-binding proteins.

BACKGROUND: Ca2+-binding proteins are important for the transduction of Ca2+ signals into physiological outcomes. As in calmodulin many of the Ca2+-binding proteins bind Ca2+ through EF-hand motifs. Amongst the large number of EF-hand containing Ca2+-binding proteins are a subfamily expressed in neurons and retinal photoreceptors known as the CaBPs and the related calneuron proteins. These were suggested to be vertebrate specific but exactly which family members are expressed outside of mammalian species had not been examined. FINDINGS: We have carried out a bioinformatic analysis to determine when members of this family arose and the conserved aspects of the protein family. Sequences of human members of the family obtained from GenBank were used in Blast searches to identify corresponding proteins encoded in other species using searches of non-redundant proteins, genome sequences and mRNA sequences. Sequences were aligned and compared using ClustalW. Some families of Ca2+-binding proteins are known to show a progressive expansion in gene number as organisms increase in complexity. In contrast, the results for CaBPs and calneurons showed that a full complement of CaBPs and calneurons are present in the teleost fish Danio rerio and possibly in cartilaginous fish. These findings suggest that the entire family of genes may have arisen at the same time during vertebrate evolution. Certain members of the family (for example the short form of CaBP1 and calneuron 1) are highly conserved suggesting essential functional roles. CONCLUSIONS: The findings support the designation of the calneurons as a distinct sub-family. While the gene number for CaBPs/calneurons does not increase, a distinctive evolutionary change in these proteins in vertebrates has been an increase in the number of splice variants present in mammals.