SREBP-1c impairs ULK1 sulfhydration-mediated autophagic flux to promote hepatic steatosis in high-fat-diet-fed mice.

A metabolic imbalance between lipid synthesis and degradation can lead to hepatic lipid accumulation, a characteristic of patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Here, we report that high-fat-diet-induced sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP)-1c, a key transcription factor that regulates lipid biosynthesis, impairs autophagic lipid catabolism via altered H2S signaling. SREBP-1c reduced cystathionine gamma-lyase (CSE) via miR-216a, which in turn decreased hepatic H2S levels and sulfhydration-dependent activation of Unc-51-like autophagy-activating kinase 1 (ULK1). Furthermore, Cys951Ser mutation of ULK1 decreased autolysosome formation and promoted hepatic lipid accumulation in mice, suggesting that the loss of ULK1 sulfhydration was directly associated with the pathogenesis of NAFLD. Moreover, silencing of CSE in SREBP-1c knockout mice increased liver triglycerides, confirming the connection between CSE, autophagy, and SREBP-1c. Overall, our results uncover a 2-fold mechanism for SREBP-1c-driven hepatic lipid accumulation through reciprocal activation and inhibition of hepatic lipid biosynthesis and degradation, respectively.

Protective effects of tauroursodeoxycholate against radiation-induced intestinal injury in a mouse model.

In patients with high-level radiation exposure, gastrointestinal injury is the main cause of death. Despite the severity of damage to the gastrointestinal tract, no specific therapeutic option is available. Tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) is a conjugated form of ursodeoxycholic acid that suppresses endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and regulates various cell-signaling pathways. We investigated the effect of TUDCA premedication in alleviating intestinal damage and enhancing the survival of C57BL/6 mice administered a lethal dose (15Gy) of focal abdominal irradiation. TUDCA was administered to mice 1 h before radiation exposure, and reduced apoptosis of the jejunal crypts 12 h after irradiation. At later timepoint (3.5 days), irradiated mice manifested intestinal morphological changes that were detected via histological examination. TUDCA decreased the inflammatory cytokine levels and attenuated the decrease in serum citrulline levels after radiation exposure. Although radiation induced ER stress, TUDCA pretreatment decreased ER stress in the irradiated intestinal cells. The effect of TUDCA indicates the possibility of radiation therapy for cancer in tumor cells. TUDCA did not affect cell proliferation and apoptosis in the intestinal epithelium. TUDCA decreased the invasive ability of the CT26 metastatic colon cancer cell line. Reduced invasion after TUDCA treatment was associated with decreased matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-7 and MMP-13 expression, which play important roles in invasion and metastasis. This study shows a potential role of TUDCA in protecting against radiation-induced intestinal damage and inhibiting tumor cell migration without any radiation and radiation therapy effect.

Comparative Morphology of Island and Inland Agastache rugosa and Their Gastroprotective Effects in EtOH/HCl-Induced Gastric Mucosal Gastritis.

Agastache rugosa Kuntze (Lamiaceae; Labiatae), a medicinal and functional herb used to treat gastrointestinal diseases, grows well both on islands and inland areas in South Korea. Thus, we aimed to reveal the morphological and micromorphological differences between A. rugosa grown on island and inland areas and their pharmacological effects on gastritis in an animal model by combining morphological and mass spectrophotometric analyses. Morphological analysis showed that island A. rugosa had slightly smaller plants and leaves than inland plants; however, the density of all types of trichomes on the leaves, petioles, and stems of island A. rugosa was significantly higher than that of inland plants. The essential oil component analysis revealed that pulegone levels were substantially higher in island A. rugosa than in inland A. rugosa. Despite the differences between island and inland A. rugosa, treatment with both island and inland A. rugosa reduced gastric damages by more than 40% compared to the gastritis induction group. In addition, expression of inflammatory protein was reduced by about 30% by treatment of island and inland A. rugosa. The present study demonstrates quantitative differences in morphology and volatile components between island and inland plants; significant differences were not observed between the gastritis-inhibitory effects of island and inland A. rugosa, and the efficacy of island A. rugosa was found to be similar to that of A. rugosa grown in inland areas.

Integrated Genome-Wide Analysis of DNA Methylation and Gene Expression in the Hippocampi of 5xFAD Alzheimer's Disease Mouse Model.

BACKGROUND: DNA methylation forms 5-methylcytosine and its regulation in the hippocampus is critical for learning and memory. Indeed, dysregulation of DNA methylation is associated with neurological diseases. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the predominant of dementia and a neurodegenerative disorder. METHODS: We examined the learning and memory function in 3- and 9-month-old wild-type and 5xfamiliar Alzheimer's disease (5xFAD) transgenic mice by performing the object recognition memory and Y-maze tests, and identified the hippocampal amyloid beta burden. To investigate the epigenetically regulated genes involved in the development or neuropathology of AD, we performed genome-wide DNA methylation sequencing and RNA sequencing analyses in the hippocampus of 9-month-old wild-type and 5xFAD tg mice. To validate the genes inversely regulated by epigenetics, we confirmed their methylation status and mRNA levels. RESULTS: At 9 months of age, 5xFAD tg mice showed significant cognitive impairment and amyloid-beta plaques in the hippocampus. DNA methylation sequencing identified a total of 13,777 differentially methylated regions, including 4484 of hyper- and 9293 of hypomethylated regions, that are associated with several gene ontology (GO) terms including 'nervous system development' and 'axon guidance'. In RNA sequencing analysis, we confirmed a total of 101 differentially expressed genes, including 52 up- and 49 downregulated genes, associated with GO functions such as 'positive regulation of synaptic transmission, glutamatergic' and 'actin filament organization'. Through further integrated analysis of DNA methylation and RNA sequencing, three epigenetically regulated genes were selected: thymus cell antigen 1, theta (Thy1), myosin VI (Myo6), and filamin A-interacting protein 1-like (Filip1l). The methylation level of Thy1 decreased and its mRNA levels increased, whereas that of Myo6 and Filip1l increased and their mRNA levels decreased. The common functions of these three genes may be associated with the neural cytoskeleton and synaptic plasticity. CONCLUSIONS: We suggest that the candidate genes epigenetically play a role in AD-associated neuropathology (i.e., amyloid-beta plaques) and memory deficit by influencing neural structure and synaptic plasticity. Furthermore, counteracting dysregulated epigenetic changes may delay or ameliorate AD onset or symptoms.

Antiepileptic and Neuroprotective Effects of Rheum tanguticum Root Extract on Trimethyltin-Induced Epilepsy and Neurodegeneration: In Vivo and in Silico Analyses.

BACKGROUND: Rheum tanguticum root, cataloged as "Daehwang" in the Korean Pharmacopeia, is rich in various anthraquinones known for their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Formulations containing Daehwang are traditionally employed for treating neurological conditions. This study aimed to substantiate the antiepileptic and neuroprotective efficacy of R. tanguticum root extract (RTE) against trimethyltin (TMT)-induced epileptic seizures and hippocampal neurodegeneration. METHODS: The constituents of RTE were identified by ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC). Experimental animals were grouped into the following five categories: control, TMT, and three TMT+RTE groups with dosages of 10, 30, and 100 mg/kg. Seizure severity was assessed daily for comparison between the groups. Brain tissue samples were examined to determine the extent of neurodegeneration and neuroinflammation using histological and molecular biology techniques. Network pharmacology analysis involved extracting herbal targets for Daehwang and disease targets for epilepsy from multiple databases. A protein-protein interaction network was built using the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes/Proteins (STRING) database, and pivotal targets were determined by topological analysis. Enrichment analysis was performed using the Database for Annotation, Visualization, and Integrated Discovery (DAVID) tool to elucidate the underlying mechanisms. RESULTS: The RTE formulation was found to contain sennoside A, sennoside B, chrysophanol, emodin, physcion, (+)-catechin, and quercetin-3-O-glucuronoid. RTE effectively inhibited TMT-induced seizures at 10, 30, and 100 mg/kg dosages and attenuated hippocampal neuronal decay and neuroinflammation at 30 and 100 mg/kg dosages. Furthermore, RTE significantly reduced mRNA levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and c-fos in hippocampal tissues. Network analysis revealed TNF, Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1ß), Interleukin-6 (IL-6), Protein c-fos (FOS), RAC-alpha serine/threonine-protein kinase (AKT1), and Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) as the core targets. Enrichment analysis demonstrated significant involvement of R. tanguticum components in neurodegeneration (p = 4.35 × 10-5) and TNF signaling pathway (p = 9.94 × 10-5). CONCLUSIONS: The in vivo and in silico analyses performed in this study suggests that RTE can potentially modulate TMT-induced epileptic seizures and neurodegeneration. Therefore, R. tanguticum root is a promising herbal treatment option for antiepileptic and neuroprotective applications.

AAV-mediated skeletal muscle specific irisin expression does not contribute to weight loss in mice.

Obesity, a chronic disease, significantly increases the risk of various diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and cancers. Exercise is crucial for weight management not only through energy expenditure by muscle activity but also through stimulating the secretion of myokines, which affect various tissues. Irisin, derived from the proteolytic processing of fibronectin type III domain-containing protein 5 (Fndc5), is a well-studied myokine with beneficial effects on metabolism. This study explored the feasibility of adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated Fndc5 gene therapy to treat obesity in a mouse model using the AAV-DIO system to express Fndc5 specifically in skeletal muscle, and investigated its anti-obesity effect. Although Fndc5 was specifically expressed in the muscle, no significant impact on body weight under normal chow or high-fat diets was observed, and no change in thermogenic gene expression in inguinal white adipose tissue was detected. Notably, Fndc5 transduction did affect bone metabolism, consistent with previous reports. These findings suggest that AAV-mediated Fndc5 gene therapy may not be an efficient strategy for obesity, contrary to our expectations. Further research is needed to elucidate the complex mechanisms involved in irisin's role in obesity and related disorders.

Particulate matter exposure and neurodegenerative diseases: A comprehensive update on toxicity and mechanisms.

Exposure to particulate matter (PM) has been associated with a range of health impacts, including neurological abnormalities that affect neurodevelopment, neuroplasticity, and behavior. Recently, there has been growing interest in investigating the possible relationship between PM exposure and the onset and progression of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis. However, the precise mechanism by which PM affects neurodegeneration is still unclear, even though several epidemiological and animal model studies have provided mechanistic insights. This article presents a review of the current research on the neurotoxicity of PM and its impact on neurodegenerative diseases. This review summarizes findings from epidemiological and animal model studies collected through searches in Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus. This review paper also discusses the reported effects of PM exposure on the central nervous system and highlights research gaps and future directions. The information presented in this review may inform public health policies aimed at reducing PM exposure and may contribute to the development of new treatments for neurodegenerative diseases. Further mechanistic and therapeutic research will be needed to fully understand the relationship between PM exposure and neurodegenerative diseases.

Cold-induced adaptive thermogenesis is impaired by exposure of Asian sand dust in mice.

Desertification and desert sandstorms caused by the worsening global warming pose increasing risks to human health. In particular, Asian sand dust (ASD) exposure has been related to an increase in mortality and hospital admissions for respiratory diseases. In this study, we investigated the effects of ASD on metabolic tissues in comparison to diesel particulate matter (DPM) that is known to cause adverse health effects. We found that larger lipid droplets were accumulated in the brown adipose tissues (BAT) of ASD-administered but not DPM-administered mice. Thermogenic gene expression was decreased in these mice as well. When ASD-administered mice were exposed to the cold, they failed to maintain their body temperature, suggesting that the ASD administration had led to impairments in cold-induced adaptive thermogenesis. However, impaired thermogenesis was not observed in DPM-administered mice. Furthermore, mice fed a high-fat diet that were chronically administered ASD demonstrated unexplained weight loss, indicating that chronic administration of ASD could be lethal in obese mice. We further identified that ASD-induced lung inflammation was not exacerbated in uncoupling protein 1 knockout mice, whose thermogenic capacity is impaired. Collectively, ASD exposure can impair cold-induced adaptive thermogenic responses in mice and increase the risk of mortality in obese mice.

Correction: Song et al. Protective Effect of Resveratrol in an Experimental Model of Salicylate-Induced Tinnitus. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23, 14183.

In the original publication [...].

Castanopsis sieboldii Extract Alleviates Acute Liver Injury by Antagonizing Inflammasome-Mediated Pyroptosis.

Castanopsis sieboldii (CS), a subtropical species, was reported to have antioxidant and antibacterial effects. However, the anti-inflammatory effects of CS have not been studied. This study aimed to investigate whether the 70% ethanol extract of the CS leaf (CSL3) inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory responses and LPS and ATP-induced pyroptosis in macrophages. CSL3 treatment inhibited NO release and iNOS expression in LPS-stimulated cells. CSL3 antagonized NF-κB and AP-1 activation, which was due to MAPK (p38, ERK, and JNK) inhibition. CSL3 successfully decreased NLRP3 inflammasome activation and increased IL-1ß expression. CSL3 treatment diminished LPS and ATP-induced pore formation in GSDMD. The in vivo effect of CSL3 on acute liver injury was evaluated in a CCl4-treated mouse model. CCl4 treatment increased the activity of serum alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase, which decreased by CSL3. In addition, CCl4-induced an increase in TNF-α, and IL-6 levels decreased by CSL3 treatment. Furthermore, we verified that the CCl4-induced inflammasome and pyroptosis-related gene expression in liver tissue and release of IL-1ß into serum were suppressed by CSL3 treatment. Our results suggest that CSL3 protects against acute liver injury by inhibiting inflammasome formation and pyroptosis.

Immunohistochemical analysis of extracellular signal-regulated kinase expression in mature and immature bulls' testes and epididymides.

Extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) has been implicated in mammalian testicular and epididymal development. This study aimed to investigate ERK expression in the immature and mature testes and epididymides of bulls. We evaluated ERK expression using immunoblot analysis and immunohistochemistry. Immunoblot analysis revealed that immature bull testes and epididymides had higher phosphorylated ERK (pERK) expression than mature bull testes and epididymides. pERK immunoreactivity was higher in immature epididymides than in immature testes. pERK was localised mostly in spermatogonia, undifferentiated sustentacular (Sertoli) cells, and interstitial (Leydig) cells in immature testes, as well as in some spermatocytes and spermatids in mature testes. In immature epididymides, the body and tail had higher pERK expression than the head, whereas pERK was broadly distributed throughout the stereocilia, basal cells, and connective tissues. pERK distribution in the head of mature epididymides was similar to that in immature epididymides, whereas few connective tissue cells were expressed in the body and tail of mature epididymides. Collectively, these results suggest that ERK is expressed in the testis and epididymis of immature and mature bulls with varying intensities, and the role of ERK in male reproductive organs may include the specific function of its development.

SREBP and central nervous system disorders: genetic overlaps revealed by in silico analysis.

BACKGROUND: The central nervous system (CNS) is enriched in lipids; despite this, studies exploring the functional roles of lipids in the brain are still limited. Sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP) signaling is a transcriptomic pathway that predominantly participates in the maintenance of lipid homeostasis; however, its involvement in the CNS dysfunction is not well-established. In this study, we aimed to characterize and pinpoint specific genes of the SREBP pathway which may be implicated in neurodegenerative, neurological, and neuropsychiatric diseases. METHODS: In silico bioinformatic analysis was performed using the open-source databases DisGeNET and MSigDB. Protein-protein interaction data were visualized and analyzed using STRING, after which GO (Gene Ontology) and KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) enrichment analyses were conducted via DAVID (Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery). RESULTS: Several common genes were identified between the SREBP pathway and CNS disorders. In GO enrichment analysis, the most enriched biological processes included lipid, cholesterol, and steroid biosynthetic processes; the most enriched molecular functions were transcription factor-related; and the most enriched subcellular compartments revealed that the genes involved in CNS disorders were mainly associated with the enzyme complexes of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) and fatty acid synthase (FASN). In KEGG enrichment analysis, the most enriched pathway was the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway, and the top-ranked genes significantly enriched under this pathway were ACACA, ACACB, FASN, HMGCR, MTOR, PPARGC1A, PRKAA1, SCD, SIRT1, and SREBF1. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this study strengthen the evidence linking the involvement of lipid homeostasis in CNS functions. We suggest herein the roles of downstream ACC and FASN enzymes and upstream AMPK signaling in the SREBP pathway as mechanisms underlying neurodegenerative, neurological, and neuropsychiatric CNS disorders.

New Insights into and Emerging Roles of Animal Models for Neurological Disorders.

Many researchers rely on animal studies to elucidate the mechanisms underlying diverse disease processes and to test the safety of emerging medical interventions [...].

Protective Effect of Resveratrol in an Experimental Model of Salicylate-Induced Tinnitus.

To date, the effect of resveratrol on tinnitus has not been reported. The attenuative effects of resveratrol (RSV) on a salicylate-induced tinnitus model were evaluated by in vitro and in vivo experiments. The gene expression of the activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein (ARC), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα), and NMDA receptor subunit 2B (NR2B) in SH-SY5Y cells was examined using qPCR. Phosphorylated cAMP response element-binding protein (p-CREB), apoptosis markers, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) were evaluated by in vitro experiments. The in vivo experiment evaluated the gap-prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle reflex (GPIAS) and auditory brainstem response (ABR) level. The NR2B expression in the auditory cortex (AC) was determined by immunohistochemistry. RSV significantly reduced the salicylate-induced expression of NR2B, ARC, and TNFα in neuronal cells; the GPIAS and ABR thresholds altered by salicylate in rats were recovered close to their normal range. RSV also reduced the salicylate-induced NR2B overexpression of the AC. These results confirmed that resveratrol exerted an attenuative effect on salicylate-induced tinnitus and may have a therapeutic potential.

Effect of Pre-Induced Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Coated Cellulose/Collagen Nanofibrous Nerve Conduit on Regeneration of Transected Facial Nerve.

(1) Objective: In order to evaluate the effect of a pre-induced mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-coated cellulose/collagen nanofibrous nerve conduit on facial nerve regeneration in a rat model both in vitro and in vivo. (2) Methods: After fabrication of the cellulose/collagen nanofibrous conduit, its lumen was coated with either MSCs or pre-induced MSCs. The nerve conduit was then applied to the defective main trunk of the facial nerve. Rats were randomly divided into three treatment groups (n = 10 in each): cellulose/collagen nanofiber (control group), cellulose/collagen nanofiber/MSCs (group I), and cellulose/collagen nanofiber/pre-induced MSCs (group II). (3) Results Fibrillation of the vibrissae of each group was observed, and action potential threshold was compared 8 weeks post-surgery. Histopathological changes were also observed. Groups I and II showed better recovery of vibrissa fibrillation than the control group. (4) Conclusions: Group II, treated with the pre-induced MSC-coated cellulose/collagen nanofibrous nerve conduit, showed the highest degree of recovery based on functional and histological evaluations.

Structural Plasticity of the Hippocampus in Neurodegenerative Diseases.

Neuroplasticity is the capacity of neural networks in the brain to alter through development and rearrangement. It can be classified as structural and functional plasticity. The hippocampus is more susceptible to neuroplasticity as compared to other brain regions. Structural modifications in the hippocampus underpin several neurodegenerative diseases that exhibit cognitive and emotional dysregulation. This article reviews the findings of several preclinical and clinical studies about the role of structural plasticity in the hippocampus in neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis. In this study, literature was surveyed using Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus, to review the mechanisms that underlie the alterations in the structural plasticity of the hippocampus in neurodegenerative diseases. This review summarizes the role of structural plasticity in the hippocampus for the etiopathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases and identifies the current focus and gaps in knowledge about hippocampal dysfunctions. Ultimately, this information will be useful to propel future mechanistic and therapeutic research in neurodegenerative diseases.

Transcriptome Profiling in the Hippocampi of Mice with Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis.

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS), approximates the key histopathological, clinical, and immunological features of MS. Hippocampal dysfunction in MS and EAE causes varying degrees of cognitive and emotional impairments and synaptic abnormalities. However, the molecular alterations underlying hippocampal dysfunctions in MS and EAE are still under investigation. The purpose of this study was to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the hippocampus of mice with EAE in order to ascertain potential genes associated with hippocampal dysfunction. Gene expression in the hippocampus was analyzed by RNA-sequencing and validated by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Gene expression analysis revealed 1202 DEGs; 1023 were upregulated and 179 were downregulated in the hippocampus of mice with EAE (p-value < 0.05 and fold change >1.5). Gene ontology (GO) analysis showed that the upregulated genes in the hippocampi of mice with EAE were associated with immune system processes, defense responses, immune responses, and regulation of immune responses, whereas the downregulated genes were related to learning or memory, behavior, and nervous system processes in the GO biological process. The expressions of hub genes from the search tool for the retrieval of interacting genes/proteins (STRING) analysis were validated by RT-qPCR. Additionally, gene set enrichment analysis showed that the upregulated genes in the hippocampus were associated with inflammatory responses: interferon-γ responses, allograft rejection, interferon-α responses, IL6_JAK_STAT3 signaling, inflammatory responses, complement, IL2_STAT5 signaling, TNF-α signaling via NF-κB, and apoptosis, whereas the downregulated genes were related to synaptic plasticity, dendritic development, and development of dendritic spine. This study characterized the transcriptome pattern in the hippocampi of mice with EAE and signaling pathways underpinning hippocampal dysfunction. However, further investigation is needed to determine the applicability of these findings from this rodent model to patients with MS. Collectively, these results indicate directions for further research to understand the mechanisms behind hippocampal dysfunction in EAE.

SMILE Downregulation during Melanogenesis Induces MITF Transcription in B16F10 Cells.

SMILE (small heterodimer partner-interacting leucine zipper protein) is a transcriptional corepressor that potently regulates various cellular processes such as metabolism and growth in numerous tissues. However, its regulatory role in skin tissue remains uncharacterized. Here, we demonstrated that SMILE expression markedly decreased in human melanoma biopsy specimens and was inversely correlated with that of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF). During melanogenesis, α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) induction of MITF was mediated by a decrease in SMILE expression in B16F10 mouse melanoma cells. Mechanistically, SMILE was regulated by α-MSH/cAMP/protein kinase A signaling and suppressed MITF promoter activity via corepressing transcriptional activity of the cAMP response element-binding protein. Moreover, SMILE overexpression significantly reduced α-MSH-induced MITF and melanogenic genes, thereby inhibiting melanin production in melanocytes. Conversely, SMILE inhibition increased the transcription of melanogenic genes and melanin contents. These results indicate that SMILE is a downstream effector of cAMP-mediated signaling and is a critical factor in the regulation of melanogenic transcription; in addition, they suggest a potential role of SMILE as a corepressor in skin pigmentation.

Evaluation of 28-day repeated oral dose toxicity of SUNACTIVE Zn-P240 in rats.

This study was conducted to investigate the potential toxicity of repeated oral dose of SUNACTIVE Zn-P240, a new type of zinc supplement, in Sprague-Dawley rats. SUNACTIVE Zn-P240 was administered once daily by gavage at doses of 0, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg/day for each group over a 28-day period. At 2000 mg/kg/day, there were increases in serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and alanine aminotransferase, liver weight, histopathological changes in stomach, liver, and pancreas and decreases in body weight, food consumption, hemoglobin, hematocrit, mean corpuscular volume (MCV), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, total protein (TP), and albumin. At 1000 mg/kg/day, there was an increase in the serum ALP level and there were decreases in the MCV, MCH, and TP. There were no treatment-related adverse effects in the 500 mg/kg/day group. Under the present experimental conditions, the target organs in rats were determined to be the stomach, pancreas, liver, and erythrocyte and the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) in rats was considered to be 500 mg/kg/day.

Behavioral characterization in MPTP/p mouse model of Parkinson's disease.

We evaluated the practicability of using the rarely utilized C57BL/6N mouse as a Parkinson's disease model established via the acute MPTP/probenecid (MPTP/p) protocol. We confirmed dopaminergic degeneration in terms of decreased expression levels of tyrosine hydroxylase in the substantia nigra and striatum of MPTP/p-lesioned mice. In addition, acute MPTP/p-lesioned mice demonstrated initial motor dysfunctions followed by spontaneous recovery. Interestingly, these MPTP/p-lesioned mice exhibited anxiolytic and antidepressive behaviors upon recovery from these motor deficits. Additionally, increased expression of norepinephrine transporters in several brain regions, including the hippocampus, medial prefrontal cortex, and striatum, and an elevated rate of adult neurogenesis (in terms of increased numbers of doublecortin-positive neuroblasts) in the hippocampus were observed after recovery from motor dysfunctions. We suggest that the emotional alterations observed under these experimental conditions may be associated with enhanced adult neurogenesis, increased levels of norepinephrine transporters, and/or a possible interplay between these two factors. Consequently, this acute MPTP/p model adequately satisfies the criteria for the validity of a Parkinson's disease model regarding dopaminergic loss and motor impairment. However, the non-motor findings may offer novel evidence against the practicability of utilizing the acute MPTP/p-lesioned mice for modeling the emotional aberrations found in Parkinson's disease patients.