Bacterial Vaginosis and Prospective Ultrasound Measures of Uterine Fibroid Incidence and Growth.

BACKGROUND: Uterine fibroids often cause intolerable symptoms leading to invasive treatments, most commonly hysterectomy. Reproductive tract infections are hypothesized to influence uterine fibroid development, but few studies exist, especially for the highly prevalent condition bacterial vaginosis (BV). Both fibroids and BV have documented racial-ethnic disparities, with higher burden in Blacks. METHODS: With prospective data from a community-based study (four standardized ultrasound examinations over 5 years) in young Black women, we examined baseline BV associations with fibroid incidence and growth. We computed adjusted hazard ratios (aHRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for incidence comparing BV and no BV (Nugent score ≥7 vs. <7) using Cox proportional hazards models among 1027 women fibroid-free at baseline. Fibroid growth associations were based on linear mixed models estimating volume change between ultrasounds indexed to 18 months. We then expressed BV association as estimated percent difference in growth per 18 months, comparing exposed and unexposed. RESULTS: There were n = 247 incident fibroids and 1181 growth measures; average fibroid growth per 18 months was a 78% (95% CI: 69 to 87) increase in volume. BV prevalence was 51% and not associated with fibroid incidence (aHR: 1.0, 95% CI: 0.80 to 1.4) or growth (estimated % difference in growth, -3% (95% CI: -12 to 6). CONCLUSIONS: In this first study (to our knowledge) of ultrasound-monitored fibroid development and Nugent-assessed BV, we found no evidence to support the hypothesis that BV increased risk of fibroid incidence or growth or BV's role in the high burden of fibroids in Black women.

Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 Seroprevalence and Incidence and Growth of Ultrasound-Diagnosed Uterine Fibroids in a Large Population of Young African-American Women.

Reproductive tract infections have long been hypothesized to be risk factors for development of uterine fibroids, but few studies have investigated the issue. In our 2016 cross-sectional analysis from the Study of Environment, Lifestyle and Fibroids (2010-2018), a large Detroit, Michigan, community-based cohort study of 23- to 35-year-old African-American women with ultrasound fibroid screening, we found no association between a very prevalent reproductive tract infection, herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), and fibroids. With prospective data from the cohort (ultrasounds performed every 20 months over 5 years), we examined HSV-2's associations with fibroid incidence (among 1,208 women who were fibroid-free at baseline) and growth (among women with fibroids at baseline or diagnosed during the study). Using Cox proportional hazards models, we computed adjusted hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals for fibroid incidence comparing HSV-2-seropositive women with HSV-2-seronegative women. The influence of HSV-2 infection on growth was assessed on the basis of the difference in fibroid size between successive ultrasounds (1,323 growth measures) using a linear mixed model, estimating the percent difference in growth scaled to 18 months. HSV-2 seropositivity was not associated with fibroid incidence (adjusted hazard ratio = 0.88, 95% confidence interval: 0.69, 1.12) or growth (estimated growth difference = 3.1%, 95% confidence interval: -5.8, 13.0). Women can be reassured that HSV-2 infection is unlikely to increase their risk of fibroid-related health problems, given these longitudinal measures.

Mycoplasma genitalium and Bacterial Vaginosis-Associated Bacteria in a Non-Clinic-Based Sample of African American Women.

BACKGROUND: Mycoplasma genitalium is associated with adverse reproductive problems. However, prevalence estimates from studies that screen women not seeking care are rare. Studies have reported co-occurrence of M. genitalium with bacterial vaginosis (BV), but no prior study of specific BV-associated bacteria has been conducted in African Americans whose reproductive tract infection burden is high. METHODS: Using quantitative polymerase chain reaction, we screened vaginal swabs for M. genitalium, 9 BV-associated bacteria, and 4 Lactobacillus species from 200 participants drawn from a cohort of African Americans 23 to 35 years old. Sexual history, herpes serostatus, and Nugent score had been assessed. Prevalence of M. genitalium was computed. The associations of other vaginal bacteria with M. genitalium were examined with binomial regression. RESULTS: M. genitalium prevalence was 18%. Detection and quantity of 2 BV-associated bacteria were significantly associated with a higher prevalence of M. genitalium (Leptotrichia/Sneathia: detection prevalence ratio (PR) of 2.9 [95% confidence interval {CI}, 1.1-7.7] and quantity PR of 1.2 [95% CI, 1.0-1.3]; Megasphaera phylotype 1: detection PR of 2.2 [95% CI, 1.2-4.2] and quantity PR of 1.1 [95% CI, 1.0-1.2]). Increased quantity of L. iners was also positively associated with M. genitalium (PR, 1.3 [95% CI, 1.0-1.8]). Nugent ≥7, herpes serostatus, and lifetime number of sex partners were not associated with M. genitalium. CONCLUSIONS: Specific BV-associated microbes and L. iners were associated with M. genitalium, but Nugent ≥7 was not. Studies are needed to confirm a high prevalence of M. genitalium in African Americans and to understand its interactions with other vaginal bacteria.

Bacterial Vaginosis-Associated Bacteria and Uterine Fibroids: A Nested Case-Control Study.

BACKGROUND: Reproductive tract infections are hypothesized to influence uterine fibroid development, yet few studies have investigated the common condition of bacterial vaginosis (BV). The literature is currently limited to data using self-report of BV. METHODS: We conducted a nested case-control study of 200 women (100 cases and 100 controls) from a large study of 23- to 35-year-old African American women, 1310 of whom were fibroid-free and prospectively followed up for 5 years to identify incident fibroids with standardized ultrasound examinations. We used quantitative polymerase chain reaction, an objective molecular method, to assess 9 BV-associated and 4 Lactobacillus species from vaginal swab specimens. We used hierarchical logistic regression to compute odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals to examine associations between bacterial species (both individually and grouped as (1) "optimal" Lactobacillus and (2) BV-associated species) with fibroid incidence and number. We also examined vaginal imbalance (quantitatively more BV-associated bacteria than optimal Lactobacilli). RESULTS: Contrary to our hypothesis, we found no increase in fibroid incidence or number among women with more BV-associated bacteria. High imbalance (only BV-associated bacteria, no optimal Lactobacillus bacteria) was actually inversely associated with fibroid incidence (odds ratio, 0.38; 95% confidence interval, 0.17-0.81). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study of ultrasound-detected incident fibroids and molecular vaginal bacterial assessment. We found no evidence that BV-associated bacteria increase the risk of fibroid incidence or number.

Accuracy of Self-reported Abnormal Pap Smears Among Reproductive-age African-American Women.

BACKGROUND: Self-reported history of abnormal Pap smear is used in large public health surveys. However, literature on the accuracy of this reporting is limited. We sought to assess the validity of self-reported abnormal Pap history in a community-based sample of African-American women 24-37 years of age in the Detroit, MI, recruited from 2010 to 2012. METHODS: We compared self-reported data on 2-year history of abnormal Pap smear to medical Pap record data (the gold standard) obtained from eligible participants. Sensitivity and specificity were evaluated to summarize the accuracy of the self-reported data. We also explored the sensitivity by severity of abnormality. RESULTS: We identified 345 participants with 480 eligible Pap records. Thirty-five percent of abnormal Pap results were not identified by self-report (sensitivity/specificity: 65%/91%; kappa = 0.54). The sensitivity of reporting an abnormal Pap tended to be higher for those with a more severe abnormality. CONCLUSIONS: A large proportion of abnormal Pap smears were not identified by self-report in this sample of African-American women. Public health studies utilizing self-reported abnormal Pap information should be interpreted with caution.

Chlamydia trachomatis Seroprevalence and Ultrasound-Diagnosed Uterine Fibroids in a Large Population of Young African-American Women.

Reproductive tract infections have long been hypothesized to increase the risk of uterine fibroids. Few studies have been conducted, even for the common infection genital Chlamydia trachomatis (gCT), and only with self-reported gCT data. Our investigation used micro-immunofluorescence serology for gCT to characterize past exposure. We used cross-sectional enrollment data from a prospective fibroid study carried out in the Detroit, Michigan, area; ultrasound examinations systematically screened for fibroids. Participants were African-American women aged 23-34 years (recruited in 2010-2012). Age- and multivariable-adjusted logistic regression models were used to estimate odds ratios. A total of 1,587 women (94% of participants) had unequivocal gCT serology results; 22% had fibroids. Those who were seropositive for gCT were less likely to have fibroids (age-adjusted odds ratio = 0.68, 95% confidence interval: 0.54, 0.87; multivariable-adjusted odds ratio = 0.80, 95% confidence interval: 0.62, 1.03). Inverse associations were similar across categories of fibroid size, number, and total volume. Participant groups likely to have had multiple or severe infections (multiple serovar groups, more sex partners, clinically diagnosed chlamydia) all showed statistically significantly reduced odds of fibroids. A protective association of gCT with fibroids was unexpected but plausible. gCT infection might increase immune surveillance and eliminate early lesions. Further investigation on the relationship between fibroid development and reproductive tract infections is needed.

Herpes Simplex Virus Type 2 Seroprevalence and Ultrasound-Diagnosed Uterine Fibroids in a Large Population of Young African-American Women.

For decades reproductive tract infections (RTIs) have been hypothesized to play a role in uterine fibroid development. The few previous studies conducted used self-reported history of RTIs and had inconsistent findings. We investigated this hypothesis further using serological analysis, an immunological measure of past exposure. We focused on herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) because prior published data have suggested a possible association with fibroids, and serology for HSV-2 is much more sensitive than self-report. We used cross-sectional enrollment data from African-American women enrolled in a prospective study of fibroid incidence and growth (recruited 2010-2012) in the Detroit, Michigan, area. The women were aged 23-34 years and were screened for fibroids using a standardized ultrasound examination at their enrollment. Age- and multivariable-adjusted logistic regression models were used to estimate odds ratios. Of 1,696 participants, 1,658 had blood samples and HSV-2 serology results; 22% of participants with serology results had fibroids. There was no significant association between HSV-2 seropositivity and the presence of fibroids (multivariable-adjusted odds ratio = 0.94, 95% confidence interval: 0.73, 1.20), nor were there any associations with size of the largest fibroid, number of fibroids, or total fibroid volume. Our data provide no evidence for an influence of HSV-2 exposure on fibroid risk in young African-American women. Further study of other serologically measured RTIs is warranted.

Recent trends in the prevalence of Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis in a commercially insured US population.

PURPOSE: Most US inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) epidemiology studies conducted to date have sampled small, geographically restricted populations and have not examined time trends. The aim of our study was to determine the prevalence of Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) in a commercially insured US population and compare prevalences across sociodemographic characteristics and time. METHODS: Using claims data from approximately 12 million Americans, we performed three consecutive 2-year cross-sectional studies. Cases of CD and UC were identified using a previously described algorithm. Prevalence was estimated by dividing cases by individuals in the source population. Logistic regression was used to compare prevalences by region, age, and sex. RESULTS: In 2009, the prevalences of CD and UC in children were 58 [95 % confidence interval (CI) 55-60] and 34 (95 % CI 32-36), respectively. In adults, the respective prevalences were 241 (95 % CI 238-245) and 263 (95 % CI 260-266). Data analysis revealed that IBD prevalences have slightly increased over time. Based on census data, an estimated 1,171,000 Americans have IBD (565,000 CD and 593,000 UC). CONCLUSIONS: Analysis of the epidemiological data revealed an increasing burden of IBD in recent years, which may be used to inform policy.

Disparities by Skin Color Among Young African-American Women.

OBJECTIVE: Light-skin disadvantage (hypothesized to result from resentment by darker-skinned individuals) has been described in majority African-American populations but is less studied than dark-skin disadvantage. We investigated both light- and dark-skin disadvantage in a contemporary African-American study population. METHODS: We used skin reflectance and questionnaire data from 1693, young African-American women in Detroit, Michigan, and dichotomized outcomes as advantaged/disadvantaged. We compared outcomes for women with light vs. medium skin color with prevalence differences (PDs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs), and dark-skin disadvantage with prevalence ratios (PRs) and 95% CIs for a 10-unit increase in skin color. RESULTS: There was little evidence for light-skin disadvantage, but darker skin was associated with disadvantage across socioeconomic, health, and psychosocial domains. The strongest associations were for SES, but even controlling for SES, other associations included higher body mass index (PR 1.14 95% CI 1.08-1.20) and more stressful events (PR 1.10 95% CI 1.01-1.20). CONCLUSIONS: Dark-skin disadvantage was the predominant form of colorism. Skin color metrics in public health research can capture more information than simple racial/ethnic categories, and such research could bring awareness to the deep-rooted colorism in society.

Douching or Perineal Talc Use and Prevalent Fibroids in Young African American Women.

Background: Black women are at an increased risk of developing fibroids, but the cause is unclear. Douching and perineal talc use are common lifestyle exposures among Black women, and may be risk factors for fibroid development. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study consisted of Black women 23-35 years of age in the metropolitan Detroit area (n = 1693) without prior diagnoses of fibroids and intact uteri. Main exposures were ever douching (yes/no) and any perineal talc use (ever/never). Main outcomes were prevalent fibroids at baseline (yes/no) and total fibroid volume at baseline (no fibroids/

The association between douching, genital talc use, and the risk of prevalent and incident cervical cancer.

While human papillomavirus is the primary cause of cervical cancer, other factors may influence susceptibility and response to the virus. Candidates include douching and talcum powder applied in the genital area. We used Cox proportional hazards models to estimate confounder-adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) in the Sister Study (2003-2009), a US cohort of women aged 35-74. We considered pre-baseline (n = 523) and incident (n = 31) cervical cancers. Douching at ages 10-13 was positively associated with pre-baseline cervical cancer (HR 1.32, 95% CI 0.86-2.03), though the association was not statistically significant. We did not observe an association between adolescent talc use and pre-baseline cervical cancer (HR 0.95, 95% CI 0.76-1.19). Douching in the year before enrollment was positively associated with incident cervical cancer (HR 2.56, 95% CI 1.10-5.99). The association between recent genital talc use and incident cervical cancer was positive, but not statistically significant (HR 1.79, 95% CI 0.78-4.11). The observed positive association between douching and incident cervical cancer is consistent with previous retrospective case-control studies. In the first study to examine genital talc use and cervical cancer, we did not see evidence of an association.

Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D and Risk of Self-Reported Bacterial Vaginosis in a Prospective Cohort Study of Young African American Women.

BACKGROUND: Bacterial vaginosis (BV), the leading cause of vaginal discharge, is associated with multiple adverse health outcomes; however, its etiology is unknown. BV treatment is not very effective, thus prevention approaches are needed. Studies investigating the impact of vitamin D on the risk of BV have had mixed findings, including two studies reporting increased risk of recurrent BV for women with higher vitamin D. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Participants were nonpregnant women in a prospective fibroid study of African Americans (ages 23-34 years) from the Detroit area. The exposure was seasonally adjusted annual mean serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] at enrollment. The outcome was self-reported doctor-diagnosed BV over ∼20 months between baseline and follow-up. Multivariable-adjusted binomial regression models estimated the risk of BV for a doubling of 25(OH)D and sufficient (≥20 ng/mL) versus deficient (<20 ng/mL) 25(OH)D. RESULTS: In total, 1459 women were included. Median 25(OH)D was 15.2 ng/mL and 73% were deficient. Sixteen percent of participants reported BV diagnoses over follow-up, 78% of whom had recurrent BV. In multivariable-adjusted analyses, a doubling of 25(OH)D was associated with an increased, rather than the hypothesized decreased, risk of self-reported BV (risk ratio [RR] 1.22, 95% confidence interval 1.02-1.48). Sufficient women also had a significantly higher, rather than lower, risk of self-reported BV (RR 1.31). Results were robust to sensitivity analyses, and post hoc analyses showed no evidence of reverse causation. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, our findings do not support vitamin D deficiency as a risk factor for BV in these young, nonpregnant African American women.

A Prospective, Ultrasound-Based Study to Evaluate Risk Factors for Uterine Fibroid Incidence and Growth: Methods and Results of Recruitment.

BACKGROUND: Uterine fibroids are common, benign, smooth-muscle tumors that can cause major morbidity for reproductive-age women, often requiring invasive treatment. Despite this personal and public health burden, no prior study has attempted to periodically screen fibroid-free women with ultrasound to detect incident disease and identify risk factors. METHODS: We designed a study to prospectively investigate development of fibroids by enrolling women without a clinical diagnosis of fibroids and screening for fibroids with ultrasound at baseline. Enrollment procedures included extensive questionnaires and specimen collection (blood, urine, vaginal swabs). The cohort is followed at approximately 20-month intervals. At each follow-up there are updates to the questionnaire data, further specimen collection, and an ultrasound examination. We identify incident disease and measure tumor growth. The two exposures of primary interest are vitamin D insufficiency and reproductive tract infections. This manuscript provides a detailed description of the study methods, recruitment results, and participant characteristics. RESULTS: The Study of Environment, Lifestyle and Fibroids enrolled 1,696 African American women aged 23-34 years. "Family and friends" was a leading recruitment source. More than 95% of participants contributed all the requested biological specimens at baseline. Study ultrasound examinations revealed undiagnosed fibroids in 378 women (22% of participants). The retention rate for the first follow-up was 87%. CONCLUSIONS: Study design aspects likely to be important for long-term studies in young African Americans include personalized recruitment, multiple steps to the enrollment process that rely on the initiative of the participant, and methods for tracing highly mobile study subjects.

Self-Reported Reproductive Tract Infections and Ultrasound Diagnosed Uterine Fibroids in African-American Women.

BACKGROUND: For decades, it has been hypothesized that reproductive tract infections (RTIs) are risk factors for uterine fibroids. However, only two recent studies have been conducted. We aimed to investigate the relationship between RTIs and fibroids in a large study using ultrasound screening for fibroids. METHODS: We used cross-sectional enrollment data from African American women ages 23-34 years with no previous fibroid diagnosis. RTI history was measured by self-report and fibroid status by standardized ultrasound. Secondary fibroid outcomes were size, number, and total volume. Age- and multivariable-adjusted logistic regression were used to estimate odds ratios (ORs). RESULTS: In total, 1,656 women were included; 22% had fibroids. Bacterial vaginosis (BV) was associated with a 21% increased odds of fibroids [aOR 1.21, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.93-1.58]. Chlamydia infection and pelvic inflammatory disease were associated with a 38% (aOR 0.62, 95% CI 0.40-0.97) and a 46% (aOR 0.54, 95% CI 0.25-1.17) reduced odds of having two or more fibroids, respectively. Those with a previous BV diagnosis had a 47% increased odds of having 2 or more fibroids (aOR 1.47, 95% CI 0.98-2.21) and a 41% increased odds of having a larger total fibroid volume (aOR 1.41, 95% CI 0.98-2.04). CONCLUSIONS: Our study was the first to explore the relationship between RTIs and fibroid size, number, and total volume. There appeared to be no strong associations between self-reported RTIs and fibroids. Studies using serology, a biochemical measure of past infection, are needed to better investigate associations between RTIs and fibroids.

Cervical neoplasia-related factors and decreased prevalence of uterine fibroids among a cohort of African American women.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether the previously reported inverse association between cervical neoplasia and uterine fibroids is corroborated. DESIGN: Cross-sectional analysis of enrollment data from an ongoing prospective study of fibroid development. SETTING: Not applicable. PATIENT(S): Self-reported data on abnormal Pap smear, colposcopy, and cervical treatment were obtained from 1,008 African American women ages 23-34 with no previous fibroid diagnosis and no reported history of human papillomavirus vaccination. Presence of fibroids was assessed at a standardized ultrasound examination. INTERVENTION(S): None. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): The association between the three cervical neoplasia-related variables and the presence of fibroids was evaluated with logistic regression to estimate age-adjusted and multivariable-adjusted odds ratios (aORs). RESULT(S): Of the analysis sample, 46%, 29%, and 14% reported a prior abnormal Pap smear, colposcopy, and cervical treatment, respectively. Twenty-five percent had fibroids at ultrasound. Those reporting cervical treatment had a 39% (aOR, 0.61; 95% confidence interval [CI] [0.38-0.96]) reduction in fibroid risk. Weak nonsignificant associations were found for abnormal Pap smear and colposcopy. CONCLUSION(S): Although a protective-type association of cervical neoplasia with uterine fibroids seems counterintuitive, a causal pathway is possible, and the findings are consistent with two prior studies. Further investigation is needed on the relationship between fibroids and cervical neoplasia and human papillomavirus-related mechanisms.