Feasibility of a best-worst scaling exercise to set priorities for autism research.

BACKGROUND: The preferences of autism stakeholders regarding the top priorities for future autism research are largely unknown. OBJECTIVE: This study had two objectives: First, to examine what autism stakeholders think new research investments should be and the attributes of investment that they consider important, and second, to explore the feasibility, acceptability and outcomes of two prioritization exercises among autism stakeholders regarding their priorities for future research in autism. DESIGN: This was  a prospective stakeholder-engaged iterative study consisting of best-worst scaling (BWS) and direct prioritization exercise. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: A national snowball sample of 219 stakeholders was included: adults with autism, caregivers, service providers and researchers. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The main outcomes measures were attributes that participants value in future research investments, and priority research investments for future research. RESULTS: Two hundred and nineteen participants completed the exercises, of whom 11% were adults with autism, 58% were parents/family members, 37% were service providers and 21% were researchers. Among stakeholders, the BWS exercises were easier to understand than the direct prioritization, less frequently skipped and yielded more consistent results. The proportion of children with autism affected by the research was the most important attribute for all types of stakeholders. The top three priorities among future research investments were (1) evidence on which child, family and intervention characteristics lead to the best/worst outcomes; (2) evidence on how changes in one area of a child's life are related to changes in other areas; and (3) evidence on dietary interventions. Priorities were similar for all stakeholder types. CONCLUSIONS: The values and priorities examined here provide a road map for investigators and funders to pursue autism research that matters to stakeholders. PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION: Stakeholders completed a BWS and direct prioritization exercise to inform us about their priorities for future autism research.

Are There Performance Advantages Favoring Federally Qualified Health Centers in Medical Home Care for Persons with Severe Mental Illness?

To identify whether medical homes in FQHCs have advantages over other group and individual medical practices in caring for people with severe mental illness. Models estimated the effect of the type of medical home on monthly service utilization, medication adherence, and total Medicaid spending over a 4-year period for adults aged 18 or older with a major depressive disorder (N = 65,755), bipolar disorder (N = 19,925), or schizophrenia (N = 8501) enrolled in North Carolina's Medicaid program. Inverse probability of treatment weights (IPTW) were used to adjust for nonrandom assignment of patients to practices. Generalized estimating equations for repeated measures were used with gamma distributions and log links for the continuous measures of medication adherence and spending, and binomial distributions with logit links for binary measures of any outpatient or any emergency department visits. Adults with major depression or bipolar disorders in FQHC medical homes had a lower probability of outpatient service use than their counterparts in individual and group practices. The probability of emergency department use, medication adherence, and total Medicaid spending were relatively similar across the three settings. This study suggests that no one type of medical practice setting-whether FQHC, other group, or individual-consistently outperforms the others in providing medical home services to people with severe mental illness.

Reliability, validity and measurement invariance of the Simplified Medication Adherence Questionnaire (SMAQ) among HIV-positive women in Ethiopia: a quasi-experimental study.

BACKGROUND: Adherence to antiretroviral therapy is critical to the achievement of the third target of the UNAIDS Fast-Track Initiative goals of 2020-2030. Reliable, valid and accurate measurement of adherence are important for correct assessment of adherence and in predicting the efficacy of ART. The Simplified Medication Adherence Questionnaire is a six-item scale which assesses the perception of persons living with HIV about their adherence to ART. Despite recent widespread use, its measurement properties have yet to be carefully documented beyond the original study in Spain. The objective of this paper was to conduct internal consistency reliability, concurrent validity and measurement invariance tests for the SMAQ. METHODS: HIV-positive women who were receiving ART services from 51 service providers in two sub-cities of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia completed the SMAQ in a HIV treatment referral network study between 2011 and 2012. Two cross-sections of 402 and 524 female patients of reproductive age, respectively, from the two sub-cities were randomly selected and interviewed at baseline and follow-up. We used Cronbach's coefficient alpha (α) to assess internal consistency reliability, Pearson product-moment correlation (r) to assess concurrent validity and multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis to analyze factorial structure and measurement invariance of the SMAQ. RESULTS: All participants were female with a mean age of 33; median: 34 years; range 18-45 years. Cronbach's alphas for the six items of the SMAQ were 0.66, 0.68, 0.75 and 0.75 for T1 control, T1 intervention, T2 control, and T2 intervention groups, respectively. Pearson correlation coefficients were 0.78, 0.49, 0.52, 0.48, 0.76 and 0.80 for items 1 to 6, respectively, between T1 compared to T2. We found invariance for factor loadings, observed item intercepts and factor variances, also known as strong measurement invariance, when we compared latent adherence levels between and across patient-groups. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show that the six-item SMAQ scale has adequate reliability and validity indices for this sample, in addition to being invariant across comparison groups. The findings of this study strengthen the evidence in support of the increasing use of SMAQ by interventionists and researchers to examine, pool and compare adherence scores across groups and time periods.

Putting Providers At-Risk through Capitation or Shared Savings: How Strong are Incentives for Upcoding and Treatment Changes?

BACKGROUND: Alternative payment models, including Accountable Care Organizations and fully capitated models, change incentives for treatment over fee-for-service models and are widely used in a variety of settings. The level of payment may affect the assignment to a payment category, but to date the upcoding literature has been motivated largely incorporating financial penalties for upcoding rather than by a theoretical model that incorporates the downstream effects of upcoding on service provision requirements. AIMS OF THE STUDY: In this paper, we contribute to the literature on upcoding by developing a new theoretical model that is applicable to capitated, case-rate and shared savings payment systems. This model incorporates the downstream effects of upcoding on service provision requirements rather than just the avoidance of penalties. This difference is important especially for shared-savings models with quality benchmarks. METHODS: We test implications of our theoretical model on changes in severity determination and service use associated with changes in case-rate payments in a publicly-funded mental health care system. We model provider-assigned severity categories as a function of risk-adjusted capitated payments using conditional logit regressions and counts of service days per month using negative binomial models. RESULTS: We find that severity determination is only weakly associated with the payment rate, with relatively small upcoding effects, but that level of use shows a greater degree of association. DISCUSSION: These results are consistent with our theoretical predictions where the marginal utility of savings or profit is small, as would be expected from public sector agencies. Upcoding did seem to occur, but at very small levels and may have been mitigated after the county and providers had some experience with the new system. The association between the payment levels and the number of service days in a month, however, was significant in the first period, and potentially at a clinically important level. Limitations include data from a single county/multiple provider system and potential unmeasured confounding during the post-implementation period. IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH CARE PROVISION AND USE: Providers in our data were not at risk for inpatient services but decreases in use of outpatient services associated with rate decreases may lead to further increases in inpatient use and therefore expenditures over time. IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH POLICIES: Health program directors and policy makers need to be acutely aware of the interplay between provider payments and patient care and eventual health and mental health outcomes. IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: Further research could examine the implications of the theoretical model of upcoding in other payment systems, estimate the power of the tiered-risk systems, and examine their influence on clinical outcomes.

Intersectoral Costs and Benefits of Mental and Behavioural Disorders in the Education Sector: an Exploration of Costing Methods.

BACKGROUND: The inclusion of indirect spillover costs and benefits that occur in non-healthcare sectors of society is necessary to make optimal societal decisions when assessing the cost effectiveness of healthcare interventions. Education costs and benefits are relevant in the disease area of mental and behavioral disorders, but their inclusion in economic evaluations is largely neglected due to lack of methodological knowledge. AIM OF THE STUDY: This study aims to explore, using a scoping review, the identification, measurement, and valuation methods used to assess the impact of mental and behavioural disorders on education costs and benefits. METHODS: A scoping review was conducted to identify articles that were set in the education sector and assessed education costs and benefits. An adapted 5-step approach was used: (i) initating a scoping review; (ii) identifying component studies; (iii) data extraction; (iv) reporting results; (v) discussion and interpretation of findings. Results were summarized in a narrative synthesis per identification, measurement, and valuation method. RESULTS: 177 component articles were identified in the scoping review that reported 61 mutually exclusive education costs and benefits. The nomenclature used to describe the costs and benefits was poorly defined, heterogeneous in nature and largely context dependent. This was also reflected in the diverse number of measurement and valuation methods found in the component articles. DISCUSSION: This is the first study, which offers a classification of education costs and benefits and costing methods reported by studies set in the education sector. In conclusion, mental and behavioral disorders have a notable impact on a variety of different education costs and benefits. IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH POLICIES: The classification provided in the current study gives an indication of the wide-spread impact of mental and behavioral disorders on the education sector. Hence, the inclusion of relevant education costs and benefits in economic evaluations for mental and behavioral disorders is necessary to make optimal societal decisions. IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH: By exploring a new area of research from a sector-specific perspective, the current study adds to the existing intersectoral cost and benefit literature base. Future research should focus on standardizing costing methods in pharmacoeconomic guidelines and assessing the relative importance of individual education costs and benefits in economic evaluations for specific interventions and diseases.

Utilization and Adherence in Medical Homes: An Assessment of Rural-Urban Differences for People With Severe Mental Illness.

BACKGROUND: The complex nature of managing care for people with severe mental illness (SMI), including major depression, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia, is a challenge for primary care practices, especially in rural areas. The team-based emphasis of medical homes may act as an important facilitator to help reduce observed rural-urban differences in care. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to examine whether enrollment in medical homes improved care in rural versus urban settings for people with SMI. RESEARCH DESIGN: Secondary data analysis of North Carolina Medicaid claims from 2004-2007, using propensity score weights and generalized estimating equations to assess differences between urban, nonmetropolitan urban and rural areas. SUBJECTS: Medicaid-enrolled adults with diagnoses of major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. Medicare/Medicaid dual eligibles were excluded. MEASURES: We examined utilization measures of primary care use, specialty mental health use, inpatient hospitalizations, and emergency department use and medication adherence. RESULTS: Rural medical home enrollees generally had higher primary care use and medication adherence than rural nonmedical home enrollees. Rural medical home enrollees had fewer primary care visits than urban medical home enrollees, but both groups were similar on the other outcome measures. These findings varied somewhat by SMI diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that enrollment in medical homes among rural Medicaid beneficiaries holds the promise of reducing rural-urban differences in care. Both urban and rural medical homes may benefit from targeted resources to help close the remaining gaps and to improve the success of the medical home model in addressing the health care needs of people with SMI.

Connecting Mentally Ill Detainees in Large Urban Jails with Community Care.

Large urban jails have become a collection point for many persons with severe mental illness. Connections between jail and community mental health services are needed to assure in-jail care and to promote successful community living following release. This paper addresses this issue for 2855 individuals with severe mental illness who received community mental health services prior to jail detention in King County (Seattle), Washington over a 5-year time period using a unique linked administrative data source. Logistic regression was used to determine the probability that a detainee with severe mental illness received mental health services while in jail as a function of demographic and clinical characteristics. Overall, 70 % of persons with severe mental illness did receive in-jail mental health treatment. Small, but statistically significant sex and race differences were observed in who received treatment in the jail psychiatric unit or from the jail infirmary. Findings confirm the jail's central role in mental health treatment and emphasize the need for greater information sharing and collaboration with community mental health agencies to minimize jail use and to facilitate successful community reentry for detainees with severe mental illness.

Use of Pooled State Administrative Data for Mental Health Services Research.

State systems are a rich, albeit challenging, laboratory for policy-relevant services research studies. State mental health authorities routinely devote resources to collect data for state planning and reporting purposes. However, these data are rarely used in cross-state comparisons to inform state or federal policy development. In 2008, in response to key recommendations from the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) Advisory Council's "The Road Ahead: Research Partnership to Transform Services," (http://www.nimh.nih.gov/about/advisory-boards-and-groups/namhc/reports/road-ahead.pdf), NIMH issued a request for applications (RFA) to support studies on the impact of state policy changes on access, cost, quality and outcomes of care for individuals with mental disorders. The purpose of the RFA was to bridge the divide between research and policy by encouraging research that used state administrative data across states, and to address significant state-defined health policy initiatives. Five projects involving eight states were selected through peer review for funding. Projects began in 2009 and were funded for 3 years. This report provides a brief description of the five projects, followed by an analysis of the impact, challenges, and lessons learned from these policy-partnered studies. We conclude by offering suggestions on ways to use state administrative data for informing state health policies, which is especially timely given national and state changes in the structure and financing of healthcare.

Do medical homes increase medication adherence for persons with multiple chronic conditions?

BACKGROUND: Medications are an integral component of management for many chronic conditions, and suboptimal adherence limits medication effectiveness among persons with multiple chronic conditions (MCC). Medical homes may provide a mechanism for increasing adherence among persons with MCC, thereby enhancing management of chronic conditions. OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between medical home enrollment and adherence to newly initiated medications among Medicaid enrollees with MCC. RESEARCH DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study comparing Community Care of North Carolina medical home enrollees to nonenrollees using merged North Carolina Medicaid claims data (fiscal years 2008-2010). SUBJECTS: Among North Carolina Medicaid-enrolled adults with MCC, we created separate longitudinal cohorts of new users of antidepressants (N=9303), antihypertensive agents (N=12,595), oral diabetic agents (N=6409), and statins (N=9263). MEASURES: Outcomes were the proportion of days covered (PDC) on treatment medication each month for 12 months and a dichotomous measure of adherence (PDC>0.80). Our primary analysis utilized person-level fixed effects models. Sensitivity analyses included propensity score and person-level random-effect models. RESULTS: Compared with nonenrollees, medical home enrollees exhibited higher PDC by 4.7, 6.0, 4.8, and 5.1 percentage points for depression, hypertension, diabetes, and hyperlipidemia, respectively (P's<0.001). The dichotomous adherence measure showed similar increases, with absolute differences of 4.1, 4.5, 3.5, and 4.6 percentage points, respectively (P's<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Among Medicaid enrollees with MCC, adherence to new medications is greater for those enrolled in medical homes.

The effects of state psychiatric hospital waitlist policies on length of stay and time to readmission.

This study examined the effects of a waitlist policy for state psychiatric hospitals on length of stay and time to readmission using data from North Carolina for 2004-2010. Cox proportional hazards models tested the hypothesis that patients were discharged "quicker-but-sicker" post-waitlist, as hospitals struggled to manage admission delays and quickly admit waitlisted patients. Results refute this hypothesis, indicating that waitlists were associated with increased length of stay and time to readmission. Further research is needed to evaluate patients' clinical outcomes directly and to examine the impact of state hospital waitlists in other areas, such as state hospital case mix, local emergency departments, and outpatient mental health agencies.

Heterogeneity in the quality of care for patients with multiple chronic conditions by psychiatric comorbidity.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the quality of care received by Medicaid enrollees with multiple chronic conditions (MCCs) and whether quality is different for those with mental illness. OBJECTIVES: To examine cancer screening and single-disease quality of care measures in a Medicaid population with MCC and to compare quality measures among persons with MCC with varying medical comorbidities with and without depression or schizophrenia. RESEARCH DESIGN: Secondary data analysis using a unique data source combining Medicaid claims with other administrative datasets from North Carolina's mental health system. SUBJECTS: Medicaid-enrolled adults aged 18 and older with ≥2 of 8 chronic conditions (asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, seizure disorder, depression, or schizophrenia). Medicare/Medicaid dual enrollees were excluded due to incomplete data on their medical care utilization. MEASURES: We examined a number of quality measures, including cancer screening, disease-specific metrics, such as receipt of hemoglobin A1C tests for persons with diabetes, and receipt of psychosocial therapies for persons with depression or schizophrenia, and medication adherence. RESULTS: Quality of care metrics was generally lower among those with depression or schizophrenia, and often higher among those with increasing levels of medical comorbidities. A number of exceptions to these trends were noted. CONCLUSIONS: Cancer screening and single-disease quality measures may provide a benchmark for overall quality of care for persons with MCC; these measures were generally lower among persons with MCC and mental illness. Further research on quality measures that better reflect the complex care received by persons with MCC is essential.

Use of medical homes by patients with comorbid physical and severe mental illness.

BACKGROUND: Patients with comorbid severe mental illness (SMI) may use primary care medical homes differently than other patients with multiple chronic conditions (MCC). OBJECTIVE: To compare medical home use among patients with comorbid SMI to use among those with only chronic physical comorbidities. RESEARCH DESIGN: We examined data on children and adults with MCC for fiscal years 2008-2010, using generalized estimating equations to assess associations between SMI (major depressive disorder or psychosis) and medical home use. SUBJECTS: Medicaid and medical home enrolled children (age, 6-17 y) and adults (age, 18-64 y) in North Carolina with ≥2 of the following chronic health conditions: major depressive disorder, psychosis, hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, seizure disorder, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. MEASURES: We examined annual medical home participation (≥1 visit to the medical home) among enrollees and utilization (number of medical home visits) among participants. RESULTS: Compared with patients without depression or psychosis, children and adults with psychosis had lower rates of medical home participation (-12.2 and -8.2 percentage points, respectively, P<0.01) and lower utilization (-0.92 and -1.02 visits, respectively, P<0.01). Children with depression had lower participation than children without depression or psychosis (-5.0 percentage points, P<0.05). Participation and utilization among adults with depression was comparable with use among adults without depression or psychosis (P>0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Overall, medical home use was relatively high for Medicaid enrollees with MCC, though it was somewhat lower among those with SMI. Targeted strategies may be required to increase medical home participation and utilization among SMI patients.

Deployment and the use of mental health services among U.S. Army wives.

BACKGROUND: Military operations in Iraq and Afghanistan have involved the frequent and extended deployment of military personnel, many of whom are married. The effect of deployment on mental health in military spouses is largely unstudied. METHODS: We examined electronic medical-record data for outpatient care received between 2003 and 2006 by 250,626 wives of active-duty U.S. Army soldiers. After adjustment for the sociodemographic characteristics and the mental health history of the wives, as well as the number of deployments of the personnel, we compared mental health diagnoses according to the number of months of deployment in Operation Iraqi Freedom in the Iraq-Kuwait region and Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan during the same period. RESULTS: The deployment of spouses and the length of deployment were associated with mental health diagnoses. In adjusted analyses, as compared with wives of personnel who were not deployed, women whose husbands were deployed for 1 to 11 months received more diagnoses of depressive disorders (27.4 excess cases per 1000 women; 95% confidence interval [CI], 22.4 to 32.3), sleep disorders (11.6 excess cases per 1000; 95% CI, 8.3 to 14.8), anxiety (15.7 excess cases per 1000; 95% CI, 11.8 to 19.6), and acute stress reaction and adjustment disorders (12.0 excess cases per 1000; 95% CI, 8.6 to 15.4). Deployment for more than 11 months was associated with 39.3 excess cases of depressive disorders (95% CI, 33.2 to 45.4), 23.5 excess cases of sleep disorders (95% CI, 19.4 to 27.6), 18.7 excess cases of anxiety (95% CI, 13.9 to 23.5), and 16.4 excess cases of acute stress reaction and adjustment disorders (95% CI, 12.2 to 20.6). CONCLUSIONS: Prolonged deployment was associated with more mental health diagnoses among U.S. Army wives, and these findings may have relevance for prevention and treatment efforts.

The impact of changes in psychiatric bed supply on jail use by persons with severe mental illness.

BACKGROUND: There is an on-going concern that reductions in psychiatric inpatient bed capacity beyond a critical threshold will further exacerbate the incarceration of persons with mental illness. However, research to date to assess the proposed relationship between inpatient bed capacity and jail use has been limited in several ways. In addition, mechanisms through which changes in psychiatric bed capacity may affect jail use by persons with mental illness remain unexamined empirically. AIMS OF THE STUDY: The aim of this study is to test whether changes in inpatient psychiatric resources, measured by per-capita psychiatric beds, inversely affect the likelihood of jail use by persons with severe mental illness. We also examine mechanisms that link psychiatric bed supply and jail detention. METHODS: We analyze unique individual-level panel data on 41,236 adults in King County, Washington who were users of jails, the public mental health system, or the Medicaid program from 1993 to 1998. Using administrative records, we identify persons ever diagnosed with severe mental illness during the study period. Our analyses build upon a system of simultaneous equations that captures mechanisms from changes in psychiatric bed supply to jail detention. We estimate a reduced-form model and calculate the total effect of a shift in psychiatric bed supply on the likelihood of jail use by persons with severe mental illness. We also estimate a semi-reduced-form equation to examine whether changes in mental health and substance use mediate the relationship between bed supply and jail detention. We estimate linear probability models with person-level fixed effects to control for individual heterogeneity. Standard errors are adjusted for intra-cluster correlations. When an equation includes an endogenous variable, we calculate generalized method of moments estimators with instrumental variables. RESULTS: A decrease in the supply of psychiatric hospital beds is significantly associated with a greater probability of jail detention for minor charges among persons diagnosed with severe mental illness. Substance use appears to mediate this relationship. DISCUSSION: A reduction of inpatient psychiatric beds, ceteris paribus, is associated with an increase in jail detention among persons with severe mental illness via substance use problems. Further research should examine whether the magnitude of this relationship is greater for persons who have severe mental illness but are unable to obtain necessary treatment. IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH POLICIES: This study further confirms an identified relationship between the supply of inpatient psychiatric beds, substance use and jail detention among persons with severe mental illness. These important relationships should be incorporated in the policy planning process, especially at the time of psychiatric inpatient bed reductions.

How a stressed local public system copes with people in psychiatric crisis.

In order to bolster the public mental health safety net, we must first understand how these systems function on a day-to-day basis. This study explored how individual attributes and organizational interdependencies within one predominantly urban US county affected responses to individuals' needs during psychiatric crises. We interviewed clinicians and managers within the crisis response network about people at immediate risk of psychiatric hospitalization, what had happened to them during their crises, and factors affecting services provided (N = 94 individuals and 9 agencies). Social network diagrams depicted patterns of referrals between agencies. Iterative coding of interview transcripts was used to contextualize the social network findings. Often, agencies saw crises through to resolution. However, providers also limited the types of people they served, leaving many people in crisis in limbo. This study illustrates how attributes of individuals with mental illness, service providers and their interactions, and state and federal policies intersect to shape the trajectories of individuals during psychiatric crises. Understanding both the structures of current local systems and their contexts may support continued evolution toward a more humane and robust safety net for some of our society's most vulnerable members.

The impact of Assertive Community Treatment on utilization of primary care and other outpatient health services: the North Carolina experience.

BACKGROUND: A number of states have implemented Assertive Community Treatment (ACT) teams statewide. The extent to which team-based care in ACT programs substitutes or complements primary care and other types of health services is relatively unknown outside of clinical trials. OBJECTIVE: To analyze whether investments in ACT yield savings in primary care and other outpatient health services. DESIGN: Patterns of medical and mental health service use and costs were examined using Medicaid claims files from 2000 to 2002 in North Carolina. Two-part models and negative binomial models compared individuals on ACT (n = 1,065 distinct individuals) with two control groups of Medicaid enrollees with severe mental illness not receiving ACT services (n = 1,426 and n = 41,717 distinct individuals). RESULTS: We found no evidence that ACT affected utilization of other outpatient health services or primary care; however, ACT was associated with a decrease in other outpatient health expenditures (excluding ACT) through a reduction in the intensity with which these services were used. Consistent with prior literature, ACT also decreased the likelihood of emergency room visits and inpatient psychiatric stays. CONCLUSIONS: Given the increasing emphasis and efforts toward integrating physical health and behavioral health care, it is likely that ACT will continue to be challenged to meet the physical health needs of its consumers. To improve primary care receipt, this may mean a departure from traditional staffing patterns (e.g., the addition of a primary care doctor and nurse) and expansion of the direct services ACT provides to incorporate physical health treatments.

Differential service utilization associated with trauma-informed integrated treatment for women with co-occurring disorders.

Women with co-occurring mental health and substance use disorders and trauma histories vary greatly in symptom severity and use of support services. This study estimated differential effects of an integrated treatment intervention (IT) across sub-groups of women in this population on services utilization outcomes. Data from a national study were used to cluster participants by symptoms and service utilization, and then estimate the effect of IT versus usual care on 12-month service utilization for each sub-group. The intervention effect varied significantly across groups, in particular indicating relative increases in residential treatment utilization associated with IT among women with predominating trauma and substance abuse symptoms. Understanding how IT influences service utilization for different groups of women in this population with complex needs is an important step toward achieving an optimal balance between need for treatment and service utilization, which can ultimately improve outcomes and conserve resources.

Public behavioral health care reform in North Carolina: will we get it right this time around?

North Carolina seeks to provide affordable and high-quality care for people with mental health, developmental disabilities and substance abuse conditions by reforming its behavioral health care system. This article presents an overview of current efforts to achieve that goal and discusses the challenges that must be overcome if reform is to be effective.

North Carolina's mental health workforce: unmet need, maldistribution, and no quick fixes.

BACKGROUND: Recent data show a maldistribution of psychiatrists in North Carolina and critical shortages in some areas. However, only 11 entire counties have official mental health professional shortage designation. METHODS: This paper presents estimates of the adequacy of the county-level mental health professional workforce. These estimates build on previous work in 4 ways: They account for mental health need as well as provider supply, capture adequacy of the prescriber and nonprescriber workforce, consider mental health services provided by primary care providers, and account for travel across county lines by providers and consumers. Workforce adequacy is measured at the county level by the percentage of rieed for mental health visits that is met by the current supply of prescribers and nonprescribers. RESULTS: Ninety-five of North Carolina's 100 counties have unmet need for prescribers. In contrast, only 7 have unmet need for nonprescribers, and these counties have inadequate numbers of prescribers as well. To eliminate the deficit under current national patterns of care, the state would need about 980 more prescribers. LIMITATIONS: Data limitations constrain findings to focus on percentage of met need rather than supplying exact counts of additional professionals needed. Estimates do not distinguish between public and private sectors of care, nor do they embody a standard of care. CONCLUSIONS: North Carolina is working to develop its mental health prescriber workforce. The Affordable Care Act provides new opportunities to develop the mental health workforce, innovative practices involving an efficient mix of professionals, and financing mechanisms to support them.

Thermal thresholds for teratogenicity, reproduction, and development.

The human embryo and foetus may be especially vulnerable to chemical and physical insults during defined stages of development. In particular, the scheduled processes of cell proliferation, cell migration, cell differentiation, and apoptosis that occur at different times for different organ structures can be susceptible to elevated temperatures. With limited ability to regulate temperature on its own, the developing embryo and foetus is entirely dependent upon the mother's thermoregulatory capacity. As a general rule, maternal core body temperature increases of ∼2°C above normal for extended periods of time, 2-2.5°C above normal for 0.5-1 h, or ≥4°C above normal for 15 min have resulted in developmental abnormalities in animal models. Significant differences in thermoregulation and thermoneutral ambient temperatures make direct extrapolation of animal data to humans challenging, and the above temperatures may or may not be reasonable threshold predictions for adverse developmental effects in humans. Corresponding specific absorption rate (SAR) values that would be necessary to cause such temperature elevations in a healthy adult female would be in the range of ≥15 W/kg (whole body average or WBA), with ∼4 W/kg required to increase core temperature 1°C. However, smaller levels of thermal stress in the mother that are asymptomatic might theoretically result in increased shunting of blood volume to the periphery as a heat dissipation mechanism. This could conceivably result in altered placental and umbilical blood perfusion and reduce heat exchange with the foetus. It is difficult to predict the magnitude and threshold for such an effect, as many factors are involved in the thermoregulatory response. However, a very conservative estimate of 1.5 W/kg WBA (1/10th the threshold to protect against measurable temperature increases) would seem sufficient to protect against any significant reduction in blood flow to the embryo or foetus in the pregnant mother. This is more than three times above the current WBA limit for occupational exposure (0.4 W/kg) as outlined in both IEEE C95.1-2005 and ICNIRP-1998 international safety standards for radiofrequency (RF) exposures. With regard to local RF exposure directly to the embryo or foetus, significant absorption by the mother as well as heat dissipation due to conductive and convective exchange would offer significant protection. However, a theoretical 1-W/kg exposure averaged over the entire 28-day embryo, or averaged over a 1-g volume in the foetus, should not elevate temperature more than 0.2°C. Because of safety standards, exposures to the foetus this great would not be attainable with the usual RF sources. Foetal exposures to ultrasound are limited by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to a maximum spatial peak temporal average intensity of 720 mW/cm(2). Routine ultrasound scanning typically occurs at lower values and temperature elevations are negligible. However, some higher power Doppler ultrasound devices under some conditions are capable of raising foetal temperature several degrees and their use in examinations of the foetus should be minimised.