Opposing regulatory effects of thioredoxin and eosinophil cytotoxicity-enhancing factor on the development of human immunodeficiency virus 1.

Exogenous recombinant human thioredoxin (rTRX, > or = 500 nM), a dithiol reductase enzyme, inhibited the expression of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 1BaL in human macrophages (M phi) by 71% (range, 26-100%), as evaluated by p24 antigen production and the integration of provirus at 14 d after infection. The stoichiometric reducing agent N-acetylcysteine (NAC) also inhibited HIV production, but to a lesser degree, and only at 30,000-fold higher concentrations. Exogenous rTRX is cleaved by M phi to generate the inflammatory cytokine, eosinophil cytotoxicity-enhancing factor (ECEF). In contrast to rTRX, rECEF (concentrations from 50 pM to 2 microM) enhanced the production of HIV by 67% (range, 33-92%). Thus, whereas TRX is a potent inhibitor of the expression of HIV in human M phi, cleavage of TRX to ECEF creates a mediator with the opposite effect. TRX also inhibited the expression of integrated provirus in the chronically infected OM 10.1 cell line, showing that it can act at a step subsequent to viral infection and integration.

In search of virulence factors of human bacterial disease.

Traditional genetic techniques and a variety of animal and tissue-culture model systems have sustained the study of bacterial virulence mechanisms for several decades. However, the recent application of newly developed molecular and cellular techniques has brought our understanding of bacterial pathogenesis to new heights by permitting the identification and analysis of previously unknown constitutively and differentially expressed virulence-associated factors.

Interleukin-12 enhances antigen-specific proliferation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from HIV-positive and negative donors in response to Mycobacterium avium.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if the addition of recombinant (r) human interleukin (IL)-12 enhances in vitro proliferative responses to Mycobacterium avium of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from HIV-positive donors with CD4 cell counts < 100 x 10(6)/l. DESIGN AND METHODS: PBMC proliferative responses to virulent and avirulent serovars of M. avium in the presence and absence of exogenously added IL-12 were determined in 24 HIV-positive and 11 HIV-negative donors by 3H-thymidine uptake assay. Changes in CD4 and CD8 cell populations after IL-12 treatment and M. avium stimulation were analyzed by FACS. RESULTS: IL-12 significantly enhanced proliferation of PBMC to both virulent and avirulent M. avium from all 24 HIV-positive donors (P = 0.0001) although the magnitude varied for each donor. In contrast, addition of IL-12 to PBMC from HIV-negative donors only increased the proliferative responses to the virulent M. avium serovar 4 (P = 0.0044). PBMC from HIV-positive donors in the presence of IL-12 responded better to the avirulent serovar of M. avium than the virulent serovar 4. Proliferative responses of HIV-positive donors to M. avium alone, however, were significantly less (P = 0.0013) than that of HIV-negative donors. Increased proliferative responses of HIV-positive donors were independent of CD4 counts. No significant changes in the ratio of CD4+ to CD8+ T cells occurred in either HIV-positive or negative donors under any culture conditions. CONCLUSION: In vitro proliferative responses of PBMC from HIV-positive donors to M. avium were significantly enhanced by the addition of human rIL-12, which was not dependent on their CD4 cell counts. The use of IL-12 as an enhancer of cell-mediated immunity in AIDS patients against M. avium infections deserves further study.

Changes in the virulence of Mycobacterium avium after passage through embryonated hens' eggs.

Eight-day-old embryonated hen's eggs were used as a model to study Mycobacterium avium virulence. Strains isolated from human patients caused 20-90% mortality when eggs were infected by injection of bacterial suspensions into the amniotic sac. Virulence of examined strains subsequently decreased with passage through eggs to between 0 and 40% mortality in four passages. Virulence of the egg-attenuated strains could be restored by passage through human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. The site of infection in the egg was usually the mesodermal layer of the chorioallantoic membrane. A few small granulomas containing acid-fast bacteria were seen in the liver, but not in other organs. Death of chicken embryos may have resulted from destruction of the mesodermal layer of the chorioallantoic membrane with consequent respiratory failure. PBMCs infected with less virulent egg-passaged strains of M. avium produced higher levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha than did peripheral blood mononuclear cells infected with more virulent nonpassaged strains.

Plasminogen activator inhibitor type 2 prevents programmed cell death of human macrophages infected with Mycobacterium avium, serovar 4.

Although Mycobacterium avium is usually nonpathogenic in healthy individuals, in vitro infection of macrophages (M phi) from the majority of healthy donors induces death of the cells 2 wk after infection; this effect is in contrast to noninfected M phi, which survive for months in culture. We demonstrate here that treatment of normal M phi with indomethacin further shortens the life of these cells to 48 h after infection with M. avium. Indomethacin treatment of the M phi also prevents M. avium-dependent accumulation of mRNA-encoding plasminogen activator inhibitor type-2 (PAI-2), an inhibitor of urokinase-type plasminogen activator. Occurrence of nuclear condensation and DNA fragmentation in M phi pretreated with indomethacin and infected with M. avium indicates that the early death of these cells is caused by apoptosis. In contrast, priming of M phi with GM-CSF significantly prolongs their survival after M. avium infection and enhances M. avium-induced accumulation of PAI-2 mRNA. Most importantly, addition of PAI-2 is sufficient to prevent apoptosis of M phi infected with M. avium in the presence of indomethacin. Finally, M phi not treated with indomethacin also die of apoptosis 7 to 10 days after M. avium infection and can be rescued by PAI-2. These studies indicate that production of PAI-2 by normal M phi as a consequence of M. avium infection inhibits programmed cell death, a mechanism that might serve to prevent the spread of the infection.

Human macrophages acquire a hyporesponsive state of tumor necrosis factor alpha production in response to successive Mycobacterium avium serovar 4 stimulation.

Human macrophages (M phi) from most donors respond to inoculation with Mycobacterium avium serovar 4 (M. avium) by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) production, which is of critical importance for proper defense against microorganisms. An initial infection of M phi with M. avium results in an incapacity to accumulate TNF-alpha mRNA after reinfection with M. avium, indicating adaptation to a hyporesponsive state by preexposure of the cells to M. avium. Adaptation to stimulation with M. avium is abrogated by the cyclooxygenase inhibitor indomethacin. In the presence of prostaglandin E2, indomethacin-exposed, M. avium-treated M phi remain unresponsive to a subsequent M. avium stimulus to increase steady-state TNF-alpha mRNA, suggesting that prostaglandin E2 is instrumental for the adaptation to an M. avium challenge. TNF-alpha mRNA accumulation induced by a second M. avium stimulus in the presence of indomethacin is blocked by the protein tyrosine kinase inhibitor herbimycin. In contrast, the initial M phi response to M. avium is inhibited by staurosporin, an inhibitor of phospholipid Ca(2+)-dependent protein kinases, indicating that the initial and the successive TNF-alpha responses to M. avium are dependent on different mechanisms.

Survival of human macrophages infected with Mycobacterium avium intracellulare correlates with increased production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and IL-6.

The long term survival of peripheral blood derived human macrophages (M phi) from normal, healthy donors after infection with Mycobacterium avium intracellulare (MAI) correlates with the increased induction of TNF-alpha and IL-6 mRNA and protein by the infected M phi. This conclusion is based on the following observations: M phi from approximately 30% of the blood donors in our study die 3 to 4 days after inoculation (MAI-growth nonsupportive (NS], whereas M phi from the other donors survive inoculation with MAI for 7-10 days (MAI-growth supportive (S)). S-type M phi when infected with MAI had markedly increased amounts of TNF-alpha and IL-6 mRNA and protein when compared to NS-type M phi. The effect of LPS on the induction of TNF-alpha mRNA and protein was also significantly enhanced in S-type M phi in comparison to NS cells. In contrast, IL-1 beta mRNA and protein production had similar increases in both donor types when infected with MAI or stimulated with LPS. The phenotype of the donors in the amount of TNF-alpha and IL-6 produced in response to MAI infection remained stable for a period of more than 1 yr. Pretreatment of NS M phi with recombinant human granulocyte-macrophage-CSF, but not IFN-gamma, however, converted NS M phi into a S-type cell phenotype. These granulocyte-macrophage-CSF pretreated NS M phi survived infection with MAI for a longer period of time and also had increased production of both TNF-alpha and IL-6 mRNA and protein. Cultures of S-type M phi infected with MAI had higher numbers of intracellular bacteria when compared to cultures of NS-infected M phi. Thus, increased survival of MAI-infected human M phi in vitro is correlated to increased production of TNF-alpha and IL-6 in response to infection with MAI.

Cytokines enhance neutrophils from human immunodeficiency virus-negative donors and AIDS patients to inhibit the growth of Mycobacterium avium in vitro.

Mycobacterium avium is one of the most prevalent opportunistic infections in AIDS patients, and neither prophylaxis nor treatment against M. avium is effective. To evaluate host defense mechanisms against mycobacterial infections, studies investigated whether neutrophils from AIDS patients could inhibit the growth of M. avium in vitro and what cytokines enhance neutrophil function against M. avium. Peripheral blood neutrophils from human immunodeficiency virus-negative and AIDS patients were incubated with media, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interleukin-8, or macrophage-inhibitory proteins and infected with M. avium, and the inhibition of bacterial growth was determined. G-CSF (1000 U/mL) and GM-CSF (2000 U/mL) stimulated neutrophils from AIDS patients to significantly inhibit M. avium growth. These results demonstrate that neutrophils from AIDS patients can respond to exogenously supplied G-CSF or GM-CSF by inhibiting the growth of M. avium.

Use of fixed autologous stimulator cells to correctly present human immunodeficiency virus type 1 viral peptides to nonhuman primate lymphocytes in proliferation and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte assays.

Autologous, virus-transformed lymphoblastoid cell lines were established by using peripheral blood lymphocytes from rhesus monkeys that were previously immunized with recombinant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 strain IIIB glycoprotein 160. These autologous cell lines were used to present human immunodeficiency virus type 1 viral antigens in a processed and cell-associated manner to T lymphocytes. This was accomplished by either infecting the cells with recombinant vaccinia viruses or pulsing them with synthetic peptides and then subjecting them to a mild fixation step with glutaraldehyde. Fixed antigen-presenting cells were then used as stimulator cells in vitro to measure cell-mediated immune responses. Both the vaccinia virus-infected and peptide-pulsed autologous cells stimulated antigen-specific cellular proliferative responses. The magnitude of the responses correlated with the immunization histories of the animals and other measures of immunity, such as antibody titers. Autologous vaccinia virus-infected cells were also capable of inducing the in vitro maturation of CD4+ and CD8+ precursor cytotoxic T lymphocytes into antigen-specific mature cytotoxic T lymphocytes. The use of stimulator cells to present viral peptides in a cell-associated manner appeared to be a very sensitive and versatile manner in which to measure cell-mediated immune responses with peripheral blood lymphocytes from nonhuman primates. It is likely that a similar approach will function with peripheral blood lymphocytes from humans.

Differential tumor necrosis factor alpha production in simian immunodeficiency virus-infected rhesus macaques coinfected with Mycobacterium avium.

Mycobacterium avium infections are the third most common opportunistic infection in patients with AIDS. Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-infected rhesus macaques naturally acquire M. avium infections from the environment, and their clinical symptoms are similar to those observed in AIDS patients. We characterized concurrent infection with SIV and M. avium in monkeys on the basis of the growth of the bacteria in macrophages (Mphis) from rhesus macaques and the ability of M. avium to induce SIV replication and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) production. The simian M. avium isolate grew significantly better than did an isolate from an AIDS patient or a chicken isolate (P = .001); it induced significantly more TNF-alpha production in Mphis from SIV-positive and SIV-negative monkeys than did the isolate from an AIDS patient (P = .013). No significant increase in SIV replication was seen in the M. avium isolates, and no correlation was found between increased SIV replication and increased TNF-alpha production. In addition, Mphis from monkeys infected with M. avium during late-stage SIV disease produced less TNF-alpha when stimulated with virulent M. avium.

Concurrent infection of human macrophages with HIV-1 and Mycobacterium avium results in decreased cell viability, increased M. avium multiplication and altered cytokine production.

The effects of a concurrent HIV-1 and Mycobacterium avium infection in vitro were assessed in human peripheral blood-derived macrophages (M phi). M phi were infected with HIV-1Ba-L strain for 14 days then infected with M. avium (HIV/M. avium) or treated with LPS (HIV/LPS). At various times after M. avium or LPS treatment, Mo phi cultures were harvested for quantitation of HIV and M. avium replication, as well as M phi cellular viability. In addition, mRNA and supernatants were collected for assessment of induction of the cytokines TNF-alpha, IL-1 beta and IL-6. M. avium multiplication was greater in HIV-infected M phi, whereas no difference in virus production, based on p24 and RT values, was observed between HIV-infected cells and HIV/M. avium or HIV/LPS M phi. M. avium infection of HIV-1-infected M phi also caused a decrease in viability of the M phi. HIV-1/M. avium-infected M phi had a 24 h delay in induction of TNF-alpha steady state mRNA when compared with HIV/LPS or M. avium only or LPS-only treated M phi. HIV infection also increased the amount and the length of induction of IL-1 beta and IL-6 steady state mRNA stimulated by either M. avium or LPS. In addition, prolonged and increased protein production of TNF-alpha, IL-6, and IL-1 beta was observed in HIV/M. avium-infected cells when compared with the other treatments. In direct contrast to M. avium infection, no significant differences in LPS-induced protein production of the three cytokines was observed between HIV-1-infected and -noninfected M phi. Treatment of HIV/M. avium-infected cells with human rGM-CSF did not increase either the time or quantity of induction of TNF-alpha mRNA or protein production in HIV/M. avium-infected M phi. The increase in M. avium numbers, dysregulation of cytokine production, and subsequent cell death seen in vitro in HIV/M. avium-infected human M phi may reflect part of the underlying cause of the highly disseminated M. avium disease pattern observed in AIDS patients.

Increased macrophage infiltration of gastric mucosa in Helicobacter pylori-infected children.

The purpose of the study was to quantify gastric mucosal macrophages and define their association with the histopathologic features of stomach biopsies obtained from Helicobacter pylori-infected and uninfected children. Endoscopically obtained gastric biopsies from symptomatic children were independently evaluated by two groups of pathologists. Thirty children were evaluated; 14 were H. pylori-infected. H. pylori positivity was determined by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), Giemsa, Warthin-Starry and an H. pylori-specific immunoperoxidase stain. A macrophage-specific, KP-1, immunoperoxidase stain was used to quantify positive cells. Inflammatory cell infiltrates were graded by severity with scores of mild to severe. Increased numbers of gastric mucosal macrophages were observed in biopsies of H. pylori-infected versus uninfected children (P < 0.05) and correlated with gastritis severity. The role of this inflammatory cell the in persistence of gastric mucosal inflammation in H. pylori infection warrants further study to develop targeted immunotherapeutic strategies.

Saponin adjuvant enhancement of antigen-specific immune responses to an experimental HIV-1 vaccine.

The adjuvant activity of a single highly purified saponin from the soap bark tree Quillaja saponaria was evaluated by using it as a component in an experimental vaccine containing rHIV-1 envelope protein (HIV-1 160D) adsorbed to alum. BALB/c mice immunized with experimental vaccine formulations containing the saponin adjuvant QS-21 produced significantly higher titers of antibodies than mice vaccinated with only the alum-adsorbed HIV-1 160D. Potent amnestic antibody responses to HIV-1 viral proteins were also induced. Ag-specific proliferative responses to recombinant proteins and to three variants of HIV-1 were significantly increased using QS-21 as an adjuvant. Alum-adsorbed HIV-1 160D failed to induce measurable proliferative responses to inactivated HIV-1 viruses, but group-specific proliferative responses were raised when the QS-21 adjuvant was used in the vaccine formulation. MHC class I restricted CTL specific for the immunodominant V-3 loop were induced but only when the QS-21 adjuvant was included in the vaccine formulation. The production of serine esterase by Ag-activated splenic mononuclear cells, indicating the maturation of precursor CTL, was used as a secondary measure of CTL activity, and this response was also increased. The specificity of antibody responses was not significantly broadened using QS-21; the adjuvant increased the immune recognition of epitopes throughout the HIV-1 glycoprotein 160. However, the specificity of the proliferation and serine esterase responses was broadened, suggesting that the QS-21 augmented cell-mediated immune responses specific for epitopes outside of the V-3 loop. Additionally, the QS-21 adjuvant appeared to induce recognition of weakly immunogenic epitopes that were not recognized using only alum-adsorbed HIV-1 160D. The ability of QS-21 to augment both antibody and cell-mediated immune responses suggests that this adjuvant could be a valuable component in subunit vaccines.

Involvement of matrix metalloproteinases in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-induced replication by clinical Mycobacterium avium isolates.

The role of Mycobacterium avium isolates in modulating human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) replication was examined by use of an in vitro, resting T cell system. Two human clinical isolates (serotypes 1 and 4) but not an environmental M. avium isolate (serotype 2) enhanced HIV-1 replication. The M. avium-induced HIV-1 replication was not associated with cell activation or differential cytokine production or utilization. Addition of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) inhibitors and their in vivo regulators, tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases-1 and -2, abrogated M. avium-induced HIV-1 replication 80%-95%. The MMP inhibitors did not have any effect on the HIV-1 protease activity, suggesting that they may affect cellular processes. Furthermore, MMP-9 protein was differentially expressed after infection with clinical M. avium isolates and paralleled HIV-1 p24 production. Collectively, these data suggest that M. avium-induced HIV-1 replication is mediated, in part, through the induction of MMP-9.