Specification of type 2 innate lymphocytes by the transcriptional determinant Gfi1.

Type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2 cells) participate in host defense against helminth parasites and in allergic inflammation. Given their functional relatedness to type 2 helper T cells (T(H)2 cells), we explored whether Gfi1 acts as a shared transcriptional determinant in ILC2 cells. Gfi1 promoted the development of ILC2 cells and controlled their responsiveness during infection with Nippostrongylus brasiliensis and protease allergen-induced lung inflammation. Gfi1 'preferentially' regulated the responsiveness of ILC2 cells to interleukin 33 (IL-33) by directly activating Il1rl1, which encodes the IL-33 receptor (ST2). Loss of Gfi1 in activated ILC2 cells resulted in impaired expression of the transcription factor GATA-3 and a dysregulated genome-wide effector state characterized by coexpression of IL-13 and IL-17. Our findings establish Gfi1 as a shared determinant that reciprocally regulates the type 2 and IL-17 effector states in cells of the innate and adaptive immune systems.

A unifying model for the selective regulation of inducible transcription by CpG islands and nucleosome remodeling.

We describe a broad mechanistic framework for the transcriptional induction of mammalian primary response genes by Toll-like receptors and other stimuli. One major class of primary response genes is characterized by CpG-island promoters, which facilitate promiscuous induction from constitutively active chromatin without a requirement for SWI/SNF nucleosome remodeling complexes. The low nucleosome occupancy at promoters in this class can be attributed to the assembly of CpG islands into unstable nucleosomes, which may lead to SWI/SNF independence. Another major class consists of non-CpG-island promoters that assemble into stable nucleosomes, resulting in SWI/SNF dependence and a requirement for transcription factors that promote selective nucleosome remodeling. Some stimuli, including serum and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, exhibit a strong bias toward activation of SWI/SNF-independent CpG-island genes. In contrast, interferon-beta is strongly biased toward SWI/SNF-dependent non-CpG-island genes. By activating a diverse set of transcription factors, Toll-like receptors induce both classes and others for an optimal response to microbial pathogens.

IL-17C regulates the innate immune function of epithelial cells in an autocrine manner.

Interleukin 17C (IL-17C) is a member of the IL-17 family that is selectively induced in epithelia by bacterial challenge and inflammatory stimuli. Here we show that IL-17C functioned in a unique autocrine manner, binding to a receptor complex consisting of the receptors IL-17RA and IL-17RE, which was preferentially expressed on tissue epithelial cells. IL-17C stimulated epithelial inflammatory responses, including the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines and antimicrobial peptides, which were similar to those induced by IL-17A and IL-17F. However, IL-17C was produced by distinct cellular sources, such as epithelial cells, in contrast to IL-17A, which was produced mainly by leukocytes, especially those of the T(H)17 subset of helper T cells. Whereas IL-17C promoted inflammation in an imiquimod-induced skin-inflammation model, it exerted protective functions in dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis. Thus, IL-17C is an essential autocrine cytokine that regulates innate epithelial immune responses.

Cutting Edge: IL-17B Uses IL-17RA and IL-17RB to Induce Type 2 Inflammation from Human Lymphocytes.

IL-17 family cytokines are critical to host defense responses at cutaneous and mucosal surfaces. Whereas IL-17A, IL-17F, and IL-17C induce overlapping inflammatory cascades to promote neutrophil-mediated immunity, IL-17E/IL-25 drives type 2 immune pathways and eosinophil activity. Genetic and pharmacological studies reveal the significant contribution these cytokines play in antimicrobial and autoimmune mechanisms. However, little is known about the related family member, IL-17B, with contrasting reports of both pro- and anti-inflammatory function in rodents. We demonstrate that in the human immune system, IL-17B is functionally similar to IL-25 and elicits type 2 cytokine secretion from innate type 2 lymphocytes, NKT, and CD4+ CRTH2+ Th2 cells. Like IL-25, this activity is dependent on the IL-17RA and IL-17RB receptor subunits. Furthermore, IL-17B can augment IL-33-driven type 2 responses. These data position IL-17B as a novel component in the regulation of human type 2 immunity.

Endogenously expressed IL-13Rα2 attenuates IL-13-mediated responses but does not activate signaling in human lung fibroblasts.

IL-13 can bind to two distinct receptors: a heterodimer of IL-13Rα1/IL-4Rα and IL-13Rα2. Whereas IL-13Rα1/IL-4Rα engagement by IL-13 leads to the activation of STAT6, the molecular events triggered by IL-13 binding to IL-13Rα2 remain incompletely understood. IL-4 can bind to and signal through the IL-13Rα1/IL-4Rα complex but does not interact with IL-13Rα2. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis is a progressive and generally fatal parenchymal lung disease of unknown etiology with no current pharmacologic treatment options that substantially prolong survival. Preclinical models of fibrotic diseases have implicated IL-13 activity on multiple cell types, including macrophages and fibroblasts, in initiating and perpetuating pathological fibrosis. In this study, we show that IL-13, IL-4, IL-13Rα2, and IL-13-inducible target genes are expressed at significantly elevated levels in lung tissue from patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis compared with control lung tissue. IL-4 and IL-13 induce virtually identical transcriptional responses in human monocytes, macrophages, and lung fibroblasts. IL-13Rα2 expression can be induced in lung fibroblasts by IL-4 or IL-13 via a STAT6-dependent mechanism, or by TNF-α via a STAT6-independent mechanism. Endogenously expressed IL-13Rα2 decreases, but does not abolish, sensitivity of lung fibroblasts to IL-13 and does not affect sensitivity to IL-4. Genome-wide transcriptional analyses of lung fibroblasts stimulated with IL-13 in the presence of Abs that selectively block interactions of IL-13 with IL-13Rα1/IL-4Rα or IL-13Rα2 show that endogenously expressed IL-13Rα2 does not activate any unique IL-13-mediated gene expression patterns, confirming its role as a decoy receptor for IL-13 signaling.

Oncostatin M expression induced by bacterial triggers drives airway inflammatory and mucus secretion in severe asthma.

Exacerbations of symptoms represent an unmet need for people with asthma. Bacterial dysbiosis and opportunistic bacterial infections have been observed in, and may contribute to, more severe asthma. However, the molecular mechanisms driving these exacerbations remain unclear. We show here that bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induces oncostatin M (OSM) and that airway biopsies from patients with severe asthma present with an OSM-driven transcriptional profile. This profile correlates with activation of inflammatory and mucus-producing pathways. Using primary human lung tissue or human epithelial and mesenchymal cells, we demonstrate that OSM is necessary and sufficient to drive pathophysiological features observed in severe asthma after exposure to LPS or Klebsiella pneumoniae. These findings were further supported through blockade of OSM with an OSM-specific antibody. Single-cell RNA sequencing from human lung biopsies identified macrophages as a source of OSM. Additional studies using Osm-deficient murine macrophages demonstrated that macrophage-derived OSM translates LPS signals into asthma-associated pathologies. Together, these data provide rationale for inhibiting OSM to prevent bacterial-associated progression and exacerbation of severe asthma.

The interleukin-17 cytokine family: critical players in host defence and inflammatory diseases.

The interleukin-17 (IL-17) cytokines, IL-17A to IL-17F, are emerging as critical players in host defence responses and inflammatory diseases. Substantial data support the role of these proteins in innate and adaptive immunity. Of these family members, IL-17A, IL-17F and IL-17E have been the best studied. Both IL-17A and IL-17F contribute to the host response to extracellular bacteria and fungi, and IL-17E has been shown to play a role in parasitic infections. In addition, numerous pre-clinical and clinical studies link these proteins to the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases, and a number of therapeutic programmes targeting these family members are in clinical development. This review will highlight the cellular sources, receptors/target cells, and role in inflammation of these and the less-characterized family members, IL-17B, IL-17C and IL-17D.

The IL-17 family cytokines in immunity and disease.

INTRODUCTION: Accumulating evidence suggests that the interleukin (IL)-17 cytokines are major players in the immune response to foreign pathogens. In addition, the pathogeneses of a number of inflammatory diseases have been linked to uncontrolled expression of these cytokine pathways. DISCUSSION: Genetic and biochemical analyses have elucidated the cellular and molecular events triggered by these proteins during an inflammatory response. While significant efforts have been placed on understanding the functions of IL-17A, IL-17F, and IL-17E, the significance of the other family members, IL-17B-D, in inflammation remains to be determined. CONCLUSION: This review will focus on the cellular sources, target cell/receptors that are utilized by these cytokines to control pathogenesis, and the therapeutic potential of targeting these pathways to treat inflammatory disorders.

Asymmetric recognition of nonconsensus AP-1 sites by Fos-Jun and Jun-Jun influences transcriptional cooperativity with NFAT1.

Many regulatory elements in eukaryotic promoters do not correspond to optimal recognition sequences for the transcription factors that regulate promoter function by binding to the elements. The sequence of the binding site may influence the structural and functional properties of regulatory protein complexes. Fos-Jun heterodimers were found to bind nonconsensus AP-1 sites in a preferred orientation. Oriented Fos-Jun heterodimer binding was attributed to nonidentical recognition of the two half-sites by Fos and Jun. Jun bound preferentially to the consensus half-site, whereas Fos was able to bind nonconsensus half-sites. The orientation of heterodimer binding affected the transcriptional cooperativity of Fos-Jun-NFAT1 complexes at composite regulatory elements in mammalian cells. Jun dimerization with Fos versus ATF2 caused it to bind opposite half-sites at nonconsensus AP-1 elements. Similarly, ATF2 bound to opposite half-sites in Fos-ATF2-NFAT1 and ATF2-Jun-NFAT1 complexes. The orientations of nonconsensus AP-1 sites within composite regulatory elements affected the cooperativity of Fos-Jun as well as Jun-Jun binding with NFAT1. Since Jun homodimers cannot bind to AP-1 sites in a preferred orientation, the effects of the orientations of nonconsensus AP-1 sites on the stabilities of Jun-Jun-NFAT1 complexes are likely to be due to asymmetric conformational changes in the two subunits of the homodimer. Nonconsensus AP-1 site orientation also affected the synergy of transcription activation between Jun homodimers and NFAT1 at composite regulatory elements. The asymmetric recognition of nonconsensus AP-1 sites can therefore influence the transcriptional activities of Fos and Jun both through effects on the orientation of heterodimer binding and through differential conformational changes in the two subunits of the dimer.

The kinase TPL2 activates ERK and p38 signaling to promote neutrophilic inflammation.

Tumor progression locus 2 (TPL2; also known as MAP3K8) is a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) kinase kinase (MAP3K) that phosphorylates the MAPK kinases MEK1 and MEK2 (MEK1/2), which, in turn, activate the MAPKs extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 (ERK1) and ERK2 (ERK1/2) in macrophages stimulated through the interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R), Toll-like receptors (TLRs), or the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR). We describe a conserved and critical role for TPL2 in mediating the effector functions of neutrophils through the activation of the p38 MAPK signaling pathway. Gene expression profiling and functional studies of neutrophils and monocytes revealed a MEK1/2-independent branch point downstream of TPL2 in neutrophils. Biochemical analyses identified the MAPK kinases MEK3 and MEK6 and the MAPKs p38α and p38δ as downstream effectors of TPL2 in these cells. Genetic ablation of the catalytic activity of TPL2 or therapeutic intervention with a TPL2-specific inhibitor reduced the production of inflammatory mediators by neutrophils in response to stimulation with the TLR4 agonist lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in vitro, as well as in rodent models of inflammatory disease. Together, these data suggest that TPL2 is a drug target that activates not only MEK1/2-dependent but also MEK3/6-dependent signaling to promote inflammatory responses.

Toward an understanding of the gene-specific and global logic of inducible gene transcription.

Virtually all living organisms have evolved mechanisms to adapt to their environment by sensing environmental stresses and inducing the transcription of appropriate sets of response genes in a coordinated fashion. In the vertebrate immune system, the highly selective response to an environmental stimulus, often an invading microorganism, plays an especially important role in regulating the activities of, and interactions among, the many cell types involved in innate and adaptive immunity. It is now widely appreciated that the selective response to a stimulus requires the concerted action of signal transduction pathways, transcription factors, and chromatin structure. Many proteins and pathways that help to regulate a response have been characterized. However, our understanding of the gene-specific and global logic through which a highly selective response is elicited has only recently begun to emerge.

Class-specific regulation of pro-inflammatory genes by MyD88 pathways and IkappaBzeta.

Toll-like receptors trigger the induction of primary response genes via MyD88-mediated activation of NF-kappaB and other transcription factors. These factors then act in concert with primary response gene products to induce secondary response genes. Although the MyD88 pathway is important for the expression of both primary and secondary response genes, we show that the recruitment of NF-kappaB, RNA polymerase, and the TATA-binding protein is MyD88-dependent only at secondary response genes. This selective dependence correlates with the fact that MyD88 is required for nucleosome remodeling and histone H3K4 trimethylation at secondary response promoters, whereas rapidly induced primary response promoters are assembled into poised MyD88-independent chromatin structures. At a subset of secondary response promoters, IkappaBzeta was identified as a selective regulator of H3K4 trimethylation and preinitiation complex assembly after nucleosome remodeling. These mechanistic distinctions advance our understanding of the diverse molecular cascades that underlie the differential regulation of pro-inflammatory genes.

Pursuing gene regulation 'logic' via RNA interference and chromatin immunoprecipitation.

RNA interference and chromatin immunoprecipitation are now firmly established as useful methods for studying mechanisms of gene regulation in vivo. Their combined use can help elucidate gene regulation 'logic' by aiding in target gene identification for transcription factors and chromatin-modifying complexes.

Selective and antagonistic functions of SWI/SNF and Mi-2beta nucleosome remodeling complexes during an inflammatory response.

Studies of mammalian genes activated in response to an acute stimulus have suggested diverse mechanisms through which chromatin structure and nucleosome remodeling events contribute to inducible gene transcription. However, because of this diversity, the logical organization of the genome with respect to nucleosome remodeling and gene induction has remained obscure. Numerous proinflammatory genes are rapidly induced in macrophages in response to microbial infection. Here, we show that in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages, the catalytic BRG1/BRM subunits of the SWI/SNF class of ATP-dependent nucleosome remodeling complexes are consistently required for the activation of secondary response genes and primary response genes induced with delayed kinetics, but not for rapidly induced primary response genes. Surprisingly, a Mi-2beta complex was selectively recruited along with the SWI/SNF complexes to the control regions of secondary response and delayed primary response genes, with the Mi-2beta complex acting antagonistically to limit the induction of these gene classes. SWI/SNF and Mi-2beta complexes influenced cell size in a similarly antagonistic manner. These results provide insight into the differential contributions of nucleosome remodeling complexes to the rapid induction of defined classes of mammalian genes and reveal a robust anti-inflammatory function of Mi-2beta.