[Avoidable childhood deaths: an analysis by department and municipality in Colombia (2000-2018)Mortalidade infantil por causas evitáveis: uma análise por departamento e município na Colômbia (2000-2018)]. / Muertes evitables en la niñez: un análisis por departamento y municipio en Colombia (2000-2018).

OBJECTIVE: To determine the proportion of potentially avoidable deaths in children under five in Colombia, by department and municipality of residence, during the period from 2000 through 2018. METHODS: A multi-group and longitudinal ecological study was conducted in 33 departments and 1 118 municipalities over a period of 19 years. The deaths were classified as probably unavoidable or avoidable; the latter were then identified as treatable, preventable, or mixed; and a proportion was calculated relative to the total. Finally, clusters were created by municipality and by department and depicted in coropleth maps. RESULTS: Between 2000 and 2018, Colombia reported 228 942 deaths of children under five, of which 91.4% were avoidable (68.2% treatable, 6.8% preventable, and 16.5% mixed) with no difference by sex. At the national level, the proportion of avoidability declined from 93.5% to 88.5% during this period. César was the department with the largest proportion of avoidable deaths (94.1%), compared with Santander, which had the smallest (89.0%). At the municipal level, all the deaths were potentially avoidable in 99 municipalities, whereas Palmar (Santander) had the least (33.3%). CONCLUSIONS: Nine out of 10 of the deaths that occurred in children under five in Colombia during 2000-2018 could have been avoided, mainly through early and better quality medical care. Sizable differences were observed between subnational territories.

OBJETIVO: Determinar a proporção de óbitos potencialmente evitáveis em crianças menores de cinco anos na Colômbia, segundo departamento e município de residência, no período de 2000-2018. MÉTODOS: Estudo ecológico longitudinal de múltiplas coortes que analisou dados de 33 departamentos e 1 118 municípios na Colômbia ao longo de 19 anos. Os óbitos foram classificados e diferenciados entre causas evitáveis (tratáveis, preveníveis ou mistas) e dificilmente evitáveis, e a proporção de óbitos foi calculada em relação ao total. Por último, foram criados conglomerados de municípios e departamentos, representados em mapas coropléticos. RESULTADOS: Entre 2000 e 2018, foram registrados 228 942 óbitos em menores de cinco anos na Colômbia, dos quais 91,4% por causas evitáveis (68,2% por causas tratáveis, 6,8% por causas preveníveis e 16,5% por causas mistas), sem diferença por sexo. A proporção de evitabilidade teve uma redução, de 93,5% a 88,5%. A maior proporção de óbitos por causas evitáveis (94,1%) foi observada no departamento de Cesar, e a menor (89,0%), em Santander. Em 99 municípios, todos os óbitos foram potencialmente evitáveis. A menor proporção de óbitos evitáveis (33,3%) foi observada no município de Palmar (departamento de Santander). CONCLUSÕES: Nove em cada 10 óbitos de menores de cinco anos ocorridos na Colômbia entre 2000 e 2018 poderiam ter sido evitados, principalmente com atenção médica de qualidade e oportuna. Foi constatada uma grande disparidade entre os territórios subnacionais.

Overview of acute diarrheal disease at the dawn of the 21st century: The case of Mexico.

OBJECTIVE: To provide an overview of morbidity and mortality due to acute diarrheal disease in Mexico in order to understand its magnitude, distribution, and evolution from 2000 to 2016. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We carried out a longitudinal ecological study with secondary sources of information. We used data from epidemiological surveillance, health services, and vital statistics. We calculated and mapped measures of utilization of health services rates and mortality due to diarrheal diseases. RESULTS: Diarrhea morbidity decreased by 42.1% across the period. However, emergency department attendances increased by 50.7% in the Ministry of Health. The hospitalization rate and mortality among the general population decreased by 37.6 and 39.7%, respectively, and the infant mortality rate decreased by 72.3% among children under five years of age. Chiapas and Oaxaca had the highest mortality among the states of Mexico. CONCLUSIONS: Cases of diarrhea, including rotavirus, have decreased in Mexico. However, in 2016, 3.4 per 100 000 people died due to diarrhea, which could have been avoided with health promotion.

OBJETIVO: Ofrecer un panorama de la morbimortalidad por enfermedad diarreica aguda (EDA) entre 2000 y 2016 en México, para entender su magnitud, distribución y evolución. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Estudio ecológico longitudinal, con fuentes de información secundarias. Se analizaron datos de vigilancia epidemiológica, prestación de servicios y estadísticas vitales. Se calcularon tasas de utilización de servicios y mortalidad. RESULTADOS: La morbilidad por EDA disminuyó 42.1% en el periodo, sin embargo, la atención por urgencias aumentó 50.7% en SS. La tasa de hospitalización descendió 37.6% y la mortalidad 39.7% en población general y 72.3% en menores de cinco años. Chiapas y Oaxaca fueron los estados con mayor tasa de mortalidad. CONCLUSIONES: Los casos de diarrea, incluyendo los de rotavirus, han disminuido en el país. Sin embargo, en 2016 se encontró una tasa de 3.4 por 100 000 personas que mueren por EDA, lo cual podría evitarse con promoción de la salud.

Long-term inequalities in health among older Mexican adults: An outcome-wide analysis.

The relationship between socioeconomic level and health outcomes in older people has been widely studied, but less information about health inequalities associated with gender and place of residence exists. Also, there is scarce evidence of longitudinal inequalities, particularly in countries from the global south. This study aimed to describe the longitudinal patterns of health inequalities associated with wealth, gender, and residence area among older Mexican adults. We used data from two longitudinal studies in Mexico: The Study on Global AGEing and Adult Health (SAGE) and the Mexican Health and Aging Study (MHAS). Three domains to characterize health inequities were used: wealth, gender, and rurality. We conducted an outcome-wide analysis with nine health indicators assessing older adults' physical and cognitive function. The Slope Index of Inequality and the Relative Index of Inequality were used as inequality measurements. Our results indicate that the greatest inequalities are observed in relation to wealth and gender. Older adults with lower socioeconomic status demonstrated higher rates of depression, sarcopenia, falls, and limitations in both basic and instrumental activities of daily living compared to their wealthier counterparts, with increasing trends in physical functionality over time. Furthermore, women experienced higher rates of depression, sarcopenia, frailty, and physical limitations compared to men. The only significant difference related to rurality was a lower rate of frailty among rural older adults. Longitudinal trajectories revealed an increase in the gap of inequality for various health indicators, especially in terms of wealth and gender. Health inequalities in old age are one of the greatest challenges facing health systems globally. Actions like universal coverage of health services for older people and the empowerment of individuals and their communities to have control over their lives and circumstances must be guaranteed.

Years of life lost to COVID-19 in 49 countries: A gender- and life cycle-based analysis of the first two years of the pandemic.

Specific mortality rates have been widely used to monitor the main impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic; however, a more meaningful measure is the Years of Life Lost (YLL) due to the disease, considering it takes into account the premature nature of each death. We estimated the YLL due to COVID-19 between January 2020 and December 2021 in 49 countries for which information was available, developing an analytical method that mathematically refines that proposed by the World Health Organization. We then calculated YLL rates overall, as well as by sex and life cycle. Additionally, we estimated the national cost-effective budgets required to manage COVID-19 from a health system perspective. During the two years of analysis, we estimated that 85.6 million years of life were lost due to COVID-19 in the 49 countries studied. However, due to a lack of data, we were unable to analyze the burden of COVID-19 in about 75% of the countries in the world. We found no difference in the magnitude of YLL rates by gender but did find differences according to life cycle, with older adults contributing the greatest burden of YLL. The COVID-19 pandemic has posed a significant burden of disease, which has varied between countries. However, due to the lack of quality and disaggregated data, it has been difficult to monitor and compare the pandemic internationally. Therefore, it is imperative to strengthen health information systems in order to prepare for future pandemics as well as to evaluate their impacts.

Real-world Evidence of COVID-19 Vaccines Effectiveness in Solid-organ Transplant Recipient Population in Colombia: A Study Nested in the Esperanza Cohort.

BACKGROUND: Solid-organ transplant recipients (SOTRs) have a higher risk of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) complications and death and a less powerful and lasting response to vaccines and to natural infection. In Colombia, this population was prioritized in the National Vaccination Plan against COVID-19 and received vaccines from different platforms. The aim of this study was to estimate the effectiveness of the complete vaccination schedule and of the vaccine booster for COVID-19 administered to SOTRs in Colombia. METHODS: A nested-cohort was assembled within the population-based ESPERANZA cohort and included the subset of 16 y and older SOTRs (n = 6963); the follow-up period spanned March 11, 2021, to May 11, 2022. The vaccine effectiveness was estimated with Cox proportional-hazards models so that the overall effectiveness of the complete vaccination schedule, the vaccine booster, each used vaccine, and the homologous and heterologous schedules were estimated, adjusting by the main confounders. RESULTS: The overall effectiveness of being fully vaccinated was 73.7% (95% confidence interval [CI], 68.9%-77.0%) to prevent COVID-19 infection, 83.7% (95% CI, 78.7%-87.5%) to prevent hospitalization, and 92.1% (95% CI, 88.8%-94.4%) to prevent death due to COVID-19. Similarly, the effectiveness of the vaccine booster was 76.7% (95% CI, 70.6%-81.5%), 86.9% (95% CI, 79.4%-91.6%), and 94.5% (95% CI, 89.8%-97.1%) to prevent confirmed COVID-19 infection, hospitalization, and death due to COVID-19, respectively. In both cases, there were no statistically significant differences across age groups. CONCLUSIONS: Findings from this work show a high protection of vaccination against infection, hospitalization, and death due to COVID-19 in SOTRs, which increases with the vaccine booster.

Real-world effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines among Colombian adults: A retrospective, population-based study of the ESPERANZA cohort.

COVID-19 vaccines have been essential for reducing the impact of the pandemic; nevertheless, population-based data under real-life conditions are needed to compare their effectiveness in various contexts. The objective of this study was to estimate the effectiveness of vaccines in preventing hospitalization and death from COVID-19 in Colombia under real-life conditions among people aged 18 years and older, according to sex, age, confirmed history of COVID-19 and vaccination series, including the effects of boosters. This investigation was an observational, retrospective, population-based study based on the Colombian cohort "Esperanza". A total of 14,213,409 individuals aged 18 years and older were analyzed, who were matched in a 1:1 ratio of vaccinated to unvaccinated. The study groups consisted of unvaccinated individuals, those with a complete series (CS) and individuals with a CS plus booster. The vaccinated individuals received either homologous or heterologous vaccinations with Ad26.COV2-S, BNT162b2, ChAdOx1 nCoV-19, CoronaVac and mRNA-1273 vaccines. Follow-up was conducted between February 2021 and June 2022. Cox proportional hazards models were used, adjusted for potential confounders, to estimate the effectiveness of different vaccination series. For adults aged 18 years and older, the overall effectiveness of the vaccines in preventing hospitalization was 82.7% (95% CI 82.1-83.2) for CS and 80.2% (95%CI 78.7-81.6) for CS + booster. The effectiveness in preventing death was 86.0% (95%CI 85.5-86.5) for CS and 83.1% (95%CI 81.5-84.5) for CS + booster. Effectiveness decreased with age. While all efficacies were high, CoronaVac offered significantly lower protection, although this improved with a booster. Continued mass vaccination is pivotal, especially in low- and middle-income countries. The study highlights both the real-world effectiveness of these vaccines and the challenges in understanding waning immunity and the influence of different VoC(Variants of Concern) on results.

Longitudinal health survey of women from Venezuela in Colombia (ELSA-VENCOL): First report.

BACKGROUND: Colombia is currently the world's main recipient country for Venezuelan migrants, and women represent a high proportion of them. This article presents the first report of a cohort of Venezuelan migrant women entering Colombia through Cúcuta and its metropolitan area. The study aimed to describe the health status and access to healthcare services among Venezuelan migrant women in Colombia with irregular migration status, and to analyze changes in those conditions at a one-month follow-up. METHODS: We carried out a longitudinal cohort study of Venezuelan migrant women, 18 to 45 years, who entered Colombia with an irregular migration status. Study participants were recruited in Cúcuta and its metropolitan area. At baseline, we administered a structured questionnaire including sociodemographic characteristics, migration history, health history, access to health services, sexual and reproductive health, practice of early detection of cervical cancer and breast cancer, food insecurity, and depressive symptoms. The women were again contacted by phone one month later, between March and July 2021, and a second questionnaire was applied. RESULTS: A total of 2,298 women were included in the baseline measurement and 56.4% could be contacted again at the one-month follow-up. At the baseline, 23.0% of the participants reported a self-perceived health problem or condition in the past month and 29.5% in the past 6 months, and 14.5% evaluated their health as fair or poor. A significant increase was found in the percentage of women who reported a self-perceived health problem during the past month (from 23.1% to 31.4%; p<0.01); as well as in the share who reported moderate, severe, or extreme difficulty working or performing daily chores (from 5.5% to 11.0%; p = 0.03) and who rated their health as fair (from 13.0% to 31.2%; p<0.01). Meanwhile, the percentage of women with depressive symptoms decreased from 80.5% to 71.2% (p<0.01). CONCLUSION: This report presents initial information on the health status of Venezuelan migrant women in Colombia, and is a starting point for further longer longitudinal follow-ups to assess changes over time in health conditions.

Estimated number of deaths directly avoided because of COVID-19 vaccination among older adults in Colombia in 2021: an ecological, longitudinal observational study.

Background: Colombia's national COVID-19 vaccination plan began in February of 2021. It gave priority to older adults, who constituted 77.7% of deaths from this illness in the year 2020. The main goal of the plan is to decrease specific mortality and the number of serious COVID-19 cases, however, the number of deaths avoided by this strategy is unknown. The objective of this study was to estimate the number of avoided deaths in Colombia by fully vaccinating older adults against COVID-19, during the first year of the implementation of the national vaccination plan. Methods: This study took on the design of an ecological, longitudinal study. Full vaccination coverage for older adults was calculated for each epidemiological week and age group from March to December 2021, based on which the number of avoided COVID-19 deaths was estimated. A sensitivity analysis was performed taking into account variations in the vaccines' effectiveness by age group. Results: In Colombia, over 5.3 million adults 60 years of age and older received full COVID-19 vaccinations between March and December 2021. During that same period, nearly 46,000 deaths of older adults from this cause were registered. We estimated that vaccination has avoided around 22,000 more older adults from dying from COVID-19 in Colombia, that is, 32.4% of expected deaths in 2021. According to the sensitivity analysis, the number of lives saved ranged from 19,597 to 36,507. Conclusions: Colombia's strategy to vaccinate older adults against COVID-19 has avoided mortality for this age group from being 48.0% higher than what was observed during the study period. Even more lives have been saved when taking into account the parameters that were defined and the omission of the contribution from partial vaccinations.

Cost-Effectiveness of the COVID-19 Test, Trace and Isolate Program in Colombia.

BACKGROUND: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Test-Trace-Isolate (TTI) programs have been recommended as a risk mitigation strategy. However, many governments have hesitated to implement them due to their costs. This study aims to estimate the cost-effectiveness of implementing a national TTI program to reduce the number of severe and fatal cases of COVID-19 in Colombia. METHODS: We developed a Markov simulation model of COVID-19 infection combined with a Susceptible-Infected-Recovered structure. We estimated the incremental cost-effectiveness of a comprehensive TTI strategy compared to no intervention over a one-year horizon, from both the health system and the societal perspective. Hospitalization and mortality rates were retrieved from Colombian surveillance data. We included program costs of TTI intervention, health services utilization, PCR diagnosis test, productivity loss, and government social program costs. We used the number of deaths and quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) as health outcomes. Sensitivity analyses were performed. FINDINGS: Compared with no intervention, the TTI strategy reduces COVID-19 mortality by 67%. In addition, the program saves an average of $1,045 and $850 per case when observed from the social and the health system perspective, respectively. These savings are equivalent to two times the current health expenditures in Colombia per year. INTERPRETATION: The TTI program is a highly cost-effective public health intervention to reduce the burden of COVID-19 in Colombia. TTI programs depend on their successful and speedy implementation. FUNDING: This study was supported by the Colombian Ministry of Health through award number PUJ-04519-20 received by EPQ AVO and SDS declined to receive any funding support for this study. The contents are the responsibility of all the individual authors.

Effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines in older adults in Colombia: a retrospective, population-based study of the ESPERANZA cohort.

Background: Although clinical trials showed that vaccines have high efficacy and safety, differences in study designs and populations do not allow for comparison between vaccines and age groups. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of vaccines against COVID-19 in real-world conditions in adults aged 60 years and older in Colombia. Methods: In this retrospective, population-based, matched cohort study, we evaluated the effectiveness of vaccines against COVID-19-related hospitalisation and death in people aged 60 years and older. The full cohort consisted of every person who was eligible to receive a COVID-19 vaccine in Colombia (the ESPERANZA cohort). The exposed cohort consisted of older adults who were fully vaccinated with Ad26.COV2-S, BNT162b2, ChAdOx1 nCoV-19, or CoronaVac, and who did not have a history of confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection. The unexposed cohort were people aged 60 years and older who had not received any dose of a COVID-19 vaccine during the study period. Participant follow-up was done between March 11, 2021, and Oct 26, 2021. Vaccine effectiveness was estimated as 1- hazard ratio from cause-specific proportional hazards models in the presence of competing risks. We estimated the overall effectiveness of being fully vaccinated, as well as effectiveness for each vaccine, adjusting by main potential confounders. The effectiveness of each vaccine was also assessed by age groups (ages 60-69 years, 70-79 years, and ≥80 years). Findings: 2 828 294 participants were assessed between March 11 and Oct 26, 2021. For all ages, the overall effectiveness across all assessed COVID-19 vaccines at preventing hospitalisation without subsequent death was 61·6% (95% CI 58·0-65·0, p<0·0001), 79·8% (78·5-81·1, p<0·0001) for preventing death after hospitalisation with COVID-19, and 72·8% (70·1-75·3, p<0·0001) for preventing death without previous COVID-19 hospitalisation. The effectiveness of all vaccines analysed at preventing death after hospitalisation for COVID-19 was 22·6% lower in adults who were aged 80 and older (68·4% [65·7-70·9], p<0·0001) compared with adults aged between 60 and 69 years (91·0% [89·0-92·6], p<0·0001). Interpretation: All vaccines analysed in this study were effective at preventing hospitalisation and death from COVID-19 in fully vaccinated older adults, which is a promising result for the national vaccination programme against COVID-19 in Colombia and in countries where these biologics have been applied. Efforts should be improved to increase coverage among older adults. In addition, given that we observed that the effectiveness of vaccines declined with increasing age, a booster dose is also justified, which should be prioritised for older adults. Funding: Colombian Ministry of Health and Social Protection.

Prenatal care of Venezuelans in Colombia: migrants navigating the healthcare system.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the experiences of irregular (undocumented) Venezuelan migrants in accessing prenatal health services in Colombia and to examine the economic, social, and cultural resources mobilized by them to gain access to care. METHODS: Data was retrieved from the qualitative component of a multi-method research conducted with pregnant immigrants in Barranquilla, Colombia, between 2018 and 2019, and triangulated with a review of regulations established by the Ministry of Health and Social Protection. RESULTS: Having limited economic capital, participants use social capital from personal networks and migrant organizations. They obtain cultural health capital in the form of information on the health system and use their cultural competencies to interact with this system. CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE: Migrants exert their agency through the use of capitals, although with certain constraints. Policies aimed at this social group should consider the strengths of migrants.

Socioeconomic inequalities associated with mortality for COVID-19 in Colombia: a cohort nationwide study.

BACKGROUND: After 8 months of the COVID-19 pandemic, Latin American countries have some of the highest rates in COVID-19 mortality. Despite being one of the most unequal regions of the world, there is a scarce report of the effect of socioeconomic conditions on COVID-19 mortality in their countries. We aimed to identify the effect of some socioeconomic inequality-related factors on COVID-19 mortality in Colombia. METHODS: We conducted a survival analysis in a nation-wide retrospective cohort study of confirmed cases of COVID-19 in Colombia from 2 March 2020 to 26 October 2020. We calculated the time to death or recovery for each confirmed case in the cohort. We used an extended multivariable time-dependent Cox regression model to estimate the HR by age groups, sex, ethnicity, type of health insurance, area of residence and socioeconomic strata. RESULTS: There were 1 033 218 confirmed cases and 30 565 deaths for COVID-19 in Colombia between 2 March and 26 October. The risk of dying for COVID-19 among confirmed cases was higher in males (HR 1.68 95% CI 1.64 to 1.72), in people older than 60 years (HR 296.58 95% CI 199.22 to 441.51), in indigenous people (HR 1.20 95% CI 1.08 to 1.33), in people with subsidised health insurance regime (HR 1.89 95% CI 1.83 to 1.96) and in people living in the very low socioeconomic strata (HR 1.44 95% CI 1.24 to 1.68). CONCLUSION: Our study provides evidence of socioeconomic inequalities in COVID-19 mortality in terms of age groups, sex, ethnicity, type of health insurance regimen and socioeconomic status.

[List of potentially avoidable causes of death in childhood: a proposal for Colombia]. / Lista de causas de muerte potencialmente evitables en la niñez: una propuesta para Colombia.

Avoidable mortality is a key indicator for decision-making in public health, considering deaths that could be avoided by disease prevention and healthcare services. Colombia lacks a specific inventory that allows estimating the magnitude, distribution, and evolution of avoidable childhood mortality. The study thus aimed to propose a list of potentially avoidable causes of death in children under five years of age in Colombia. Based on three lists of avoidable childhood mortality, the authors evaluated 6,800 causes of death according to their potential avoidability in Colombia. After analyzing the etiological plausibility and according to the natural history of the diseases, 595 events were ruled out. Later, causes that appeared in at least two reference inventories were added to the list. For those contained in just one inventory, (1,751) the conventional Delphi method with two stages was applied to assess consensus among experts. All the resulting causes were assigned to an avoidability group and validated twice. In each round, the percentage of overall agreement and Fleiss kappa were calculated for multiple evaluators. In all, 6,168 potentially avoidable causes of death were evaluated in children under five years of age, categorized as treatable (39.5%), preventable (47.4%), or mixed (13.1%). A consensus was found among pediatric experts as to potential avoidability. The final set is satisfactory, and its use is recommended in the Colombian context.

La mortalidad evitable es un indicador clave para la toma de decisiones en salud pública, que considera las muertes que podrían haberse evitado mediante la prevención de enfermedades o la atención en los servicios de salud. En Colombia no se cuenta con un inventario específico que permita estimar la magnitud, distribución y evolución de la mortalidad evitable en la niñez. El objetivo fue proponer una lista de causas de muerte potencialmente evitables para niños menores de cinco años de Colombia. A partir de tres listas de mortalidad evitable para niños, se evaluaron 6.800 causas de defunción según su potencial evitabilidad en Colombia. Después de analizar la plausibilidad -etiológica y de acuerdo con la historia natural de la enfermedad- se descartaron 595 eventos; posteriormente, se ingresaron a la lista las causas coincidentes en al menos dos inventarios de referencia. Para aquellas contenidas en un solo inventario (1.751) se aplicó el método Delphi convencional con dos etapas para valorar el consenso entre expertos. Todas las causas resultantes fueron asignadas a un grupo de evitabilidad y validadas en dos ocasiones. En cada ronda se calculó el porcentaje de acuerdo global y kappa de Fleiss para múltiples evaluadores. En total, fueron identificadas 6.168 causas de defunción potencialmente evitables en niños menores de cinco años, categorizadas como tratables (39,5%), prevenibles (47,4%) o mixtas (13,1%). Se encontró consenso entre los expertos en salud infantil en cuanto a la potencial evitabilidad. El conjunto final es satisfactorio. Se recomienda su utilización en el contexto colombiano.

A mortalidade evitável é um indicador chave para a tomada de decisão na saúde pública, que considera as mortes que poderiam ter sido evitadas mediante a prevenção de doenças ou o atendimento em unidades de saúde. Na Colômbia não existe registro específico que permita estimar a magnitude, a distribuição e a evolução da mortalidade evitável na infância. O objetivo era propor una lista de causas de morte potencialmente evitáveis para crianças com menos de cinco anos no país. A partir de três listas de mortalidade evitável para crianças, foram avaliadas 6.800 causas de óbito, de acordo com o seu potencial de evitabilidade na Colômbia. Depois de se analisar a plausibilidade - etiológica e conforme a história natural da doença - foram descartados 595 eventos; posteriormente, foram acrescentadas à lista as causas coincidentes em pelo menos dois registros de referência. Para aquelas presentes em um único registro (1.751) foi aplicado o método Delphi convencional, com duas etapas para avaliar o consenso entre especialistas. Todas as causas resultantes foram classificadas em um grupo de evitabilidade e validadas em duas ocasiões. A cada etapa, foi calculado o percentual de acordo global e o kappa de Fleiss para múltiplos avaliadores. No total, foram identificadas 6.168 causas de óbito potencialmente evitáveis em crianças menores de cinco anos, categorizadas como tratáveis (39,5%), preveníveis (47,4%) ou mistas (13,1%). Foi encontrado consenso entre os especialistas em saúde infantil quanto à potencial evitabilidade. O conjunto final é satisfatório. Recomenda-se a sua utilização no contexto colombiano.

[Social inequalities in under-five mortality: a systematic review]. / Desigualdades sociales en la mortalidad de niños menores de cinco años: revisión sistemática.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the characteristics of the published studies on social inequalities in under-five mortality, their theoretical perspectives, axes of inequality, methods and results. METHOD: We carried out a systematic literature review. We consulted four electronic databases and Google Scholar, for studies published between 2010 and 2018. RESULTS: We analyzed 126 articles. In 62.7%, territory was studied as the axis of inequality, followed by socioeconomic determinants (27.8%). Neonatal, infant and under-five mortality was analyzed as an output in health in 19.0%, 49.2% and 32.3%, respectively. It predominated ecological (62.7%) and longitudinal (50.0%) studies. Significant reductions in mortality rates were found, however, the decline was not homogeneous among subpopulations. CONCLUSIONS: The literature reports a marked decrease in under-five mortality; however, the gaps between different axes of inequality continue and in some cases they have increased. Gaps varied according to time, place, axis of inequality and type of mortality analyzed.

[Determinants of birth weight among children of irregular migrant Venezuelan women in Barranquilla and Riohacha]. / Determinantes del peso al nacer en hijos de mujeres venezolanas migrantes irregulares en Barranquilla y Riohacha.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the determinants of birth weight in the children of Venezuelan women in irregular migration status during pregnancy, in Barranquilla and Riohacha, between 2018 and 2019. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We carried out a longitudinal and descriptive study of secondary source, with a hospital and community basis. We included mother-child pairs of Venezuelan women in an irregular condition whose delivery occurred in Barranquilla and Riohacha between July 2018 and December 2019 (n=563). Results: We found a significative association between the number of prenatal care and low birth weight. The odds of being born with low birth weight among those who had no controls was 4.0 times in relation to those who met at least 4 controls during pregnancy (OR = 4.0, 95% CI 1.5 - 10.4). CONCLUSIONS: The probability of low birth weight in the newborns of those mothers who did not have prenatal controls was 82.7% higher compared to the children of mothers who had four or more prenatal cares.

OBJETIVO: Describir los factores determinantes del peso al nacer en los hijos de mujeres venezolanas en condición migratoria irregular durante la gestación, en Barranquilla y Riohacha, en el periodo 2018-2019. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS: Se realizó un estudio descriptivo longitudinal de fuente secundaria, con base hospitalaria y comunitaria. Se incluyeron los binomios madre-hijo de mujeres venezolanas en condición irregular cuyo parto se presentó en Barranquilla y Riohacha entre julio de 2018 y diciembre de 2019 (n=563). RESULTADOS: Se encontró asociación estadísticamente significativa entre el número de controles prenatales y el bajo peso al nacer. Las odds de nacer con bajo peso entre quienes no tuvieron controles fueron de 4,0 veces en relación con quienes cumplieron con al menos 4 controles durante el embarazo (OR=4,0; IC 95% 1,5 - 10,4). CONCLUSIONES: Se encontró que la probabilidad de bajo peso al nacer en los recién nacidos de aquellas madres que no se realizaron controles prenatales es superior en un 82,7% a la de los hijos de las madres que tuvieron cuatro controles prenatales o más.

Perception of effective access to health services in Territorial Spaces for Training and Reincorporation, one year after the peace accords in Colombia: a cross-sectional study.

Backgrounds: The signing of the peace accords in Colombia created challenges that are inherent to post-conflict transitions. One of those is the process of reintegrating ex-combatants into society, in which ensuring their rights to health is a particularly significant challenge in rural areas affected by armed conflict. These areas, known as Territorial Spaces for Training and ReintegrationReincorporation (ETCR, in Spanish), are geographically dispersed throughout 24 municipalities and 13 departments in Colombia. This study aimed to describe how ex-combatants in ETCR regions perceived access to health services one year after the signing of the peace accords. Methods: A descriptive, cross-sectional study was performed between September and October 2018. It included 591 adults and their families, from 23 ETCRs. The study was designed, culturally validated, and piloted. Interviewers were trained and a structured survey was administered containing five dimensions that characterized the perception of effective access to health services. Results: The majority of interviewees were women, heads of household, young adults, ex-combatants, and residents in an ETCR. In total of 96.4% were enrolled in Colombia's subsidized health system, and 20.8% indicated that a member of their household required emergency health services. The regional health center provided the majority of the services. Most of those surveyed (96.0%) reported that they did not have to pay for the services, and that they received respectful (91.6%) and good quality (66.6%) care. There were few referrals to disease prevention and health promotion activities, and only 19.0% of households reported having been visited by extramural health care teams, whose activities were highly valued (80%). Lastly, there was little knowledge about community health activities. Conclusions: While residents of ETCR regions have a favorable perception of their access to health services, they need to be made aware of extramural and public health activities.

Evaluación de la calidad de las estadísticas vitales de niños menores de cinco años. Colombia, 2000-2018

Introducción: Las estadísticas vitales son fundamentales para conocer las condiciones de salud de la población y diseñar intervenciones. De su calidad depende la precisión y validez de las métricas derivadas y la relevancia de las decisiones de política pública. Objetivo: Evaluar la calidad de las estadísticas vitales de niños menores de cinco años en Colombia, entre 2000 y 2018. Métodos: Estudio descriptivo y exploratorio. Se analizó la calidad de los registros de nacidos vivos y defunciones publicados por el DANE, utilizando los criterios recomendados por las Naciones Unidas: exactitud (precisión), cobertura (compleción) y oportunidad. Resultados: Se encontraron registros de nacimientos y defunciones con datos perdidos en categorías que indican gradiente social. El 8,2 % de los registros de defunción tenían como causa básica de muerte códigos poco útiles para la toma de decisiones en salud pública. El 97,8 % de los nacidos vivos fueron registrados durante el mismo año de ocurrencia. El subregistro de la mortalidad infantil se estimó en un 28,9 %, con diferencias entre territorios. Conclusiones: La calidad de las estadísticas vitales en niños menores de cinco años de Colombia mejoró en los 19 años evaluados, en particular en exactitud y oportunidad. Sin embargo, persisten problemas en la asignación de la causa básica de muerte y en el subregistro, con diferencias importantes entre territorios. Mejorar la calidad del sistema de estadísticas vitales debe ser un imperativo ético, en especial para comprender las poblaciones de áreas geográficas históricamente invisibilizadas en el país.

Introduction: Vital statistics are essential to identify the health conditions of a population and design interventions. Vital statistics are essential to understand population health and design public health interventions. The accuracy and validity of the derived metrics and the relevance of public policy decisions depend on its quality. Objetive: To evaluate the quality of the vital statistics of children under five years of age in Colombia, between 2000 and 2018. Methods: A descriptive and exploratory study was carried out and the quality of records of live births and deaths published by DANE was analyzed using the criteria suggested by the United Nations: accuracy (precision), opportunity, and coverage (completeness). Results: Of the death records, 8.2% show codes useless for public health purposes as underlying cause of death. Of the live births, 97.8% were registered during the same year of occurrence. We estimated the underregistration of infant mortality at 28.9%, with differences between territories. Conclusions: The quality of vital statistics of children under five years of age has improved in Colombia in the 19 years analyzed, particularly in accuracy and opportunity. However, problems persist in assigning the underlying cause of death and in underregistration, with significant differences between territories. Improving the quality of the vital statistics system must be an ethical imperative, especially to understand the populations of geographic areas historically invisible in the country.

[Lifestyles and health status of migrants in a settlement of Barranquilla, Colombia, 2018]. / Modos de vida y estado de salud de migrantes en un asentamiento de Barranquilla, 2018.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the lifestyles and health status of returning Venezuelan and Colombian migrants in Villa Caracas, Barranquilla, in 2018. METHODS: Descriptive, cross-sectional study with systematic sampling of dwellings. 229 people over 15 years of age from 90 homes were included. RESULTS: Differences were found in the routes to arrive, commuting times and stay in the settlement between Venezuelan and returning Colombian migrants. Housing conditions and access to public services are limited: less than half of the dwellings have access to aqueduct, sewerage and bathrooms. In general, self-reported health status of migrants is very good or good and the prevalence of noncommunicable diseases was relatively low, with the exception of high blood pressure. Most of the people who consulted the emergency department reported effective access. Clinically significant depressive symptoms were found in 20% of the surveyed population. CONCLUSIONS: The migrants of Villa Caracas are under high social vulnerability conditions given their economic and environmental conditions. Despite their lack of enrollment in the Colombian health system, they reported access to emergency care.

OBJETIVO: Describir los modos de vida y el estado de salud de salud de migrantes venezolanos y colombianos de retorno asentados en Villa Caracas, Barranquilla, en el año 2018. MÉTODO: Estudio descriptivo de corte transversal con muestreo sistemático de viviendas. Fueron incluidas 229 personas mayores de 15 años procedentes de 90 viviendas. RESULTADOS: Se encontraron diferencias en las rutas para llegar, tiempos de traslado y estancia en el asentamiento entre migrantes venezolanos y colombianos en retorno. Las condiciones de la vivienda y el acceso a los servicios públicos son limitadas, menos de la mitad de las viviendas tienen acceso a acueducto, alcantarillado y baño. En general el estado de salud auto-reportado por los migrantes es muy bueno o bueno, las prevalencias de enfermedades crónicas fueron relativamente bajas, con excepción de hipertensión arterial. De los que consultaron al servicio de urgencias, la mayoría reportó acceso efectivo. Se encontraron síntomas depresivos clínicamente significativos para el 20% de la población encuestada. CONCLUSIONES: Los migrantes de Villa Caracas se encuentran en condiciones de alta vulnerabilidad social dadas sus condiciones económicas y ambientales. A pesar de la falta de aseguramiento al sistema de salud colombiano, reportaron acceso a la atención por urgencias.

Prenatal care of Venezuelans in Colombia: migrants navigating the healthcare system

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVES To explore the experiences of irregular (undocumented) Venezuelan migrants in accessing prenatal health services in Colombia and to examine the economic, social, and cultural resources mobilized by them to gain access to care. METHODS Data was retrieved from the qualitative component of a multi-method research conducted with pregnant immigrants in Barranquilla, Colombia, between 2018 and 2019, and triangulated with a review of regulations established by the Ministry of Health and Social Protection. RESULTS Having limited economic capital, participants use social capital from personal networks and migrant organizations. They obtain cultural health capital in the form of information on the health system and use their cultural competencies to interact with this system. CONCLUSIONS FOR PRACTICE Migrants exert their agency through the use of capitals, although with certain constraints. Policies aimed at this social group should consider the strengths of migrants.

Lista de causas de muerte potencialmente evitables en la niñez: una propuesta para Colombia / List of potentially avoidable causes of death in childhood: a proposal for Colombia / Lista de causas de morte potencialmente evitáveis na infância: uma proposta para a Colômbia

Resumen: La mortalidad evitable es un indicador clave para la toma de decisiones en salud pública, que considera las muertes que podrían haberse evitado mediante la prevención de enfermedades o la atención en los servicios de salud. En Colombia no se cuenta con un inventario específico que permita estimar la magnitud, distribución y evolución de la mortalidad evitable en la niñez. El objetivo fue proponer una lista de causas de muerte potencialmente evitables para niños menores de cinco años de Colombia. A partir de tres listas de mortalidad evitable para niños, se evaluaron 6.800 causas de defunción según su potencial evitabilidad en Colombia. Después de analizar la plausibilidad -etiológica y de acuerdo con la historia natural de la enfermedad- se descartaron 595 eventos; posteriormente, se ingresaron a la lista las causas coincidentes en al menos dos inventarios de referencia. Para aquellas contenidas en un solo inventario (1.751) se aplicó el método Delphi convencional con dos etapas para valorar el consenso entre expertos. Todas las causas resultantes fueron asignadas a un grupo de evitabilidad y validadas en dos ocasiones. En cada ronda se calculó el porcentaje de acuerdo global y kappa de Fleiss para múltiples evaluadores. En total, fueron identificadas 6.168 causas de defunción potencialmente evitables en niños menores de cinco años, categorizadas como tratables (39,5%), prevenibles (47,4%) o mixtas (13,1%). Se encontró consenso entre los expertos en salud infantil en cuanto a la potencial evitabilidad. El conjunto final es satisfactorio. Se recomienda su utilización en el contexto colombiano.

Abstract: Avoidable mortality is a key indicator for decision-making in public health, considering deaths that could be avoided by disease prevention and healthcare services. Colombia lacks a specific inventory that allows estimating the magnitude, distribution, and evolution of avoidable childhood mortality. The study thus aimed to propose a list of potentially avoidable causes of death in children under five years of age in Colombia. Based on three lists of avoidable childhood mortality, the authors evaluated 6,800 causes of death according to their potential avoidability in Colombia. After analyzing the etiological plausibility and according to the natural history of the diseases, 595 events were ruled out. Later, causes that appeared in at least two reference inventories were added to the list. For those contained in just one inventory, (1,751) the conventional Delphi method with two stages was applied to assess consensus among experts. All the resulting causes were assigned to an avoidability group and validated twice. In each round, the percentage of overall agreement and Fleiss kappa were calculated for multiple evaluators. In all, 6,168 potentially avoidable causes of death were evaluated in children under five years of age, categorized as treatable (39.5%), preventable (47.4%), or mixed (13.1%). A consensus was found among pediatric experts as to potential avoidability. The final set is satisfactory, and its use is recommended in the Colombian context.

Resumo: A mortalidade evitável é um indicador chave para a tomada de decisão na saúde pública, que considera as mortes que poderiam ter sido evitadas mediante a prevenção de doenças ou o atendimento em unidades de saúde. Na Colômbia não existe registro específico que permita estimar a magnitude, a distribuição e a evolução da mortalidade evitável na infância. O objetivo era propor una lista de causas de morte potencialmente evitáveis para crianças com menos de cinco anos no país. A partir de três listas de mortalidade evitável para crianças, foram avaliadas 6.800 causas de óbito, de acordo com o seu potencial de evitabilidade na Colômbia. Depois de se analisar a plausibilidade - etiológica e conforme a história natural da doença - foram descartados 595 eventos; posteriormente, foram acrescentadas à lista as causas coincidentes em pelo menos dois registros de referência. Para aquelas presentes em um único registro (1.751) foi aplicado o método Delphi convencional, com duas etapas para avaliar o consenso entre especialistas. Todas as causas resultantes foram classificadas em um grupo de evitabilidade e validadas em duas ocasiões. A cada etapa, foi calculado o percentual de acordo global e o kappa de Fleiss para múltiplos avaliadores. No total, foram identificadas 6.168 causas de óbito potencialmente evitáveis em crianças menores de cinco anos, categorizadas como tratáveis (39,5%), preveníveis (47,4%) ou mistas (13,1%). Foi encontrado consenso entre os especialistas em saúde infantil quanto à potencial evitabilidade. O conjunto final é satisfatório. Recomenda-se a sua utilização no contexto colombiano.