Loss of ERß Disrupts Gene Regulation in Primordial and Primary Follicles.

Loss of ERß increases primordial follicle growth activation (PFGA), leading to premature ovarian follicle reserve depletion. We determined the expression and gene regulatory functions of ERß in dormant primordial follicles (PdFs) and activated primary follicles (PrFs) using mouse models. PdFs and PrFs were isolated from 3-week-old Erß knockout (Erßnull) mouse ovaries, and their transcriptomes were compared with those of control Erßfl/fl mice. We observed a significant (≥2-fold change; FDR p-value ≤ 0.05) deregulation of approximately 5% of genes (866 out of 16,940 genes, TPM ≥ 5) in Erßnull PdFs; ~60% (521 out of 866) of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were upregulated, and 40% were downregulated, indicating that ERß has both transcriptional enhancing as well as repressing roles in dormant PdFs. Such deregulation of genes may make the Erßnull PdFs more susceptible to increased PFGA. When the PdFs undergo PFGA and form PrFs, many new genes are activated. During PFGA of Erßfl/fl follicles, we detected a differential expression of ~24% genes (4909 out of 20,743; ≥2-fold change; FDR p-value ≤ 0.05; TPM ≥ 5); 56% upregulated and 44% downregulated, indicating the gene enhancing and repressing roles of Erß-activated PrFs. In contrast, we detected a differential expression of only 824 genes in Erßnull follicles during PFGA (≥2-fold change; FDR p-value ≤ 0.05; TPM ≥ 5). Moreover, most (~93%; 770 out of 824) of these DEGs in activated Erßnull PrFs were downregulated. Such deregulation of genes in Erßnull activated follicles may impair their inhibitory role on PFGA. Notably, in both Erßnull PdFs and PrFs, we detected a significant number of epigenetic regulators and transcription factors to be differentially expressed, which suggests that lack of ERß either directly or indirectly deregulates the gene expression in PdFs and PrFs, leading to increased PFGA.

TEAD4 ensures postimplantation development by promoting trophoblast self-renewal: An implication in early human pregnancy loss.

Early pregnancy loss affects ∼15% of all implantation-confirmed human conceptions. However, evolutionarily conserved molecular mechanisms that regulate self-renewal of trophoblast progenitors and their association with early pregnancy loss are poorly understood. Here, we provide evidence that transcription factor TEAD4 ensures survival of postimplantation mouse and human embryos by controlling self-renewal and stemness of trophoblast progenitors within the placenta primordium. In an early postimplantation mouse embryo, TEAD4 is selectively expressed in trophoblast stem cell-like progenitor cells (TSPCs), and loss of Tead4 in postimplantation mouse TSPCs impairs their self-renewal, leading to embryonic lethality before embryonic day 9.0, a developmental stage equivalent to the first trimester of human gestation. Both TEAD4 and its cofactor, yes-associated protein 1 (YAP1), are specifically expressed in cytotrophoblast (CTB) progenitors of a first-trimester human placenta. We also show that a subset of unexplained recurrent pregnancy losses (idiopathic RPLs) is associated with impaired TEAD4 expression in CTB progenitors. Furthermore, by establishing idiopathic RPL patient-specific human trophoblast stem cells (RPL-TSCs), we show that loss of TEAD4 is associated with defective self-renewal in RPL-TSCs and rescue of TEAD4 expression restores their self-renewal ability. Unbiased genomics studies revealed that TEAD4 directly regulates expression of key cell cycle genes in both mouse and human TSCs and establishes a conserved transcriptional program. Our findings show that TEAD4, an effector of the Hippo signaling pathway, is essential for the establishment of pregnancy in a postimplantation mammalian embryo and indicate that impairment of the Hippo signaling pathway could be a molecular cause for early human pregnancy loss.

DOT1L Methyltransferase Regulates Calcium Influx in Erythroid Progenitor Cells in Response to Erythropoietin.

Erythropoietin (EPO) signaling plays a vital role in erythropoiesis by regulating proliferation and lineage-specific differentiation of murine hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs). An important downstream response of EPO signaling is calcium (Ca2+) influx, which is regulated by transient receptor potential channel (TRPC) proteins, particularly TRPC2 and TRPC6. While EPO induces Ca2+ influx through TRPC2, TRPC6 inhibits the function of TRPC2. Thus, interactions between TRPC2 and TRPC6 regulate the rate of Ca2+ influx in EPO-induced erythropoiesis. In this study, we observed that the expression of TRPC6 in KIT-positive erythroid progenitor cells was regulated by DOT1L. DOT1L is a methyltransferase that plays an important role in many biological processes during embryonic development including early erythropoiesis. We previously reported that Dot1l knockout (Dot1lKO) HPCs in the yolk sac failed to develop properly, which resulted in lethal anemia. In this study, we detected a marked downregulation of Trpc6 gene expression in Dot1lKO progenitor cells in the yolk sac compared to the wild type (WT). The promoter and the proximal regions of the Trpc6 gene locus exhibited an enrichment of H3K79 methylation, which is mediated solely by DOT1L. However, the expression of Trpc2, the positive regulator of Ca2+ influx, remained unchanged, resulting in an increased TRPC2/TRPC6 ratio. As the loss of DOT1L decreased TRPC6, which inhibited Ca2+ influx by TRPC2, Dot1lKO HPCs in the yolk sac exhibited accelerated and sustained elevated levels of Ca2+ influx. Such heightened Ca2+ levels might have detrimental effects on the growth and proliferation of HPCs in response to EPO.

ERß Regulation of Gonadotropin Responses during Folliculogenesis.

Gonadotropins are essential for regulating ovarian development, steroidogenesis, and gametogenesis. While follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) promotes the development of ovarian follicles, luteinizing hormone (LH) regulates preovulatory maturation of oocytes, ovulation, and formation of corpus luteum. Cognate receptors of FSH and LH are G-protein coupled receptors that predominantly signal through cAMP-dependent and cAMP-independent mechanisms that activate protein kinases. Subsequent vital steps in response to gonadotropins are mediated through activation or inhibition of transcription factors required for follicular gene expression. Estrogen receptors, classical ligand-activated transcriptional regulators, play crucial roles in regulating gonadotropin secretion from the hypothalamic-pituitary axis as well as gonadotropin function in the target organs. In this review, we discuss the role of estrogen receptor ß (ERß) regulating gonadotropin response during folliculogenesis. Ovarian follicles in Erß knockout (ErßKO) mutant female mice and rats cannot develop beyond the antral state, lack oocyte maturation, and fail to ovulate. Theca cells (TCs) in ovarian follicles express LH receptor, whereas granulosa cells (GCs) express both FSH receptor (FSHR) and LH receptor (LHCGR). As oocytes do not express the gonadotropin receptors, the somatic cells play a crucial role during gonadotropin induced oocyte maturation. Somatic cells also express high levels of estrogen receptors; while TCs express ERα and are involved in steroidogenesis, GCs express ERß and are involved in both steroidogenesis and folliculogenesis. GCs are the primary site of ERß-regulated gene expression. We observed that a subset of gonadotropin-induced genes in GCs, which are essential for ovarian follicle development, oocyte maturation and ovulation, are dependent on ERß. Thus, ERß plays a vital role in regulating the gonadotropin responses in ovary.

Rethinking progesterone regulation of female reproductive cyclicity.

The progesterone receptor (PGR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor with key roles in the regulation of female fertility. Much has been learned of the actions of PGR signaling through the use of pharmacologic inhibitors and genetic manipulation, using mouse mutagenesis. Characterization of rats with a null mutation at the Pgr locus has forced a reexamination of the role of progesterone in the regulation of the female reproductive cycle. We generated two Pgr mutant rat models, using genome editing. In both cases, deletions yielded a null mutation resulting from a nonsense frame-shift and the emergence of a stop codon. Similar to Pgr null mice, Pgr null rats were infertile because of deficits in sexual behavior, ovulation, and uterine endometrial differentiation. However, in contrast to the reported phenotype of female mice with disruptions in Pgr signaling, Pgr null female rats exhibit robust estrous cycles. Cyclic changes in vaginal cytology, uterine histology, serum hormone levels, and wheel running activity were evident in Pgr null female rats, similar to wild-type controls. Furthermore, exogenous progesterone treatment inhibited estrous cycles in wild-type female rats but not in Pgr-null female rats. As previously reported, pharmacologic antagonism supports a role for PGR signaling in the regulation of the ovulatory gonadotropin surge, a result at variance with experimentation using genetic ablation of PGR signaling. To conclude, our findings in the Pgr null rat challenge current assumptions and prompt a reevaluation of the hormonal control of reproductive cyclicity.

HIF-KDM3A-MMP12 regulatory circuit ensures trophoblast plasticity and placental adaptations to hypoxia.

The hemochorial placenta develops from the coordinated multilineage differentiation of trophoblast stem (TS) cells. An invasive trophoblast cell lineage remodels uterine spiral arteries, facilitating nutrient flow, failure of which is associated with pathological conditions such as preeclampsia, intrauterine growth restriction, and preterm birth. Hypoxia plays an instructive role in influencing trophoblast cell differentiation and regulating placental organization. Key downstream hypoxia-activated events were delineated using rat TS cells and tested in vivo, using trophoblast-specific lentiviral gene delivery and genome editing. DNA microarray analyses performed on rat TS cells exposed to ambient or low oxygen and pregnant rats exposed to ambient or hypoxic conditions showed up-regulation of genes characteristic of an invasive/vascular remodeling/inflammatory phenotype. Among the shared up-regulated genes was matrix metallopeptidase 12 (MMP12). To explore the functional importance of MMP12 in trophoblast cell-directed spiral artery remodeling, we generated an Mmp12 mutant rat model using transcription activator-like nucleases-mediated genome editing. Homozygous mutant placentation sites showed decreased hypoxia-dependent endovascular trophoblast invasion and impaired trophoblast-directed spiral artery remodeling. A link was established between hypoxia/HIF and MMP12; however, evidence did not support Mmp12 as a direct target of HIF action. Lysine demethylase 3A (KDM3A) was identified as mediator of hypoxia/HIF regulation of Mmp12 Knockdown of KDM3A in rat TS cells inhibited the expression of a subset of the hypoxia-hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-dependent transcripts, including Mmp12, altered H3K9 methylation status, and decreased hypoxia-induced trophoblast cell invasion in vitro and in vivo. The hypoxia-HIF-KDM3A-MMP12 regulatory circuit is conserved and facilitates placental adaptations to environmental challenges.

OVO-like 1 regulates progenitor cell fate in human trophoblast development.

Epithelial barrier integrity is dependent on progenitor cells that either divide to replenish themselves or differentiate into a specialized epithelium. This paradigm exists in human placenta, where cytotrophoblast cells either propagate or undergo a unique differentiation program: fusion into an overlying syncytiotrophoblast. Syncytiotrophoblast is the primary barrier regulating the exchange of nutrients and gases between maternal and fetal blood and is the principal site for synthesizing hormones vital for human pregnancy. How trophoblast cells regulate their differentiation into a syncytium is not well understood. In this study, we show that the transcription factor OVO-like 1 (OVOL1), a homolog of Drosophila ovo, regulates the transition from progenitor to differentiated trophoblast cells. OVOL1 is expressed in human placenta and was robustly induced following stimulation of trophoblast differentiation. Disruption of OVOL1 abrogated cytotrophoblast fusion and inhibited the expression of a broad set of genes required for trophoblast cell fusion and hormonogenesis. OVOL1 was required to suppress genes that maintain cytotrophoblast cells in a progenitor state, including MYC, ID1, TP63, and ASCL2, and bound specifically to regions upstream of each of these genes. Our results reveal an important function of OVOL1 as a regulator of trophoblast progenitor cell fate during human trophoblast development.

CITED2 modulation of trophoblast cell differentiation: insights from global transcriptome analysis.

Trophoblast stem (TS) cells possess the capacity to differentiate along a multi-lineage pathway yielding several specialized cell types. The regulatory network controlling trophoblast cell differentiation is poorly understood. Cbp/p300-interacting transactivator with Glu/Asp-rich carboxy-terminal domain, 2 (CITED2) has been implicated in the regulation of placentation; however, we know little about how CITED2 acts to influence trophoblast cells. Rat Rcho-1 TS cells can be manipulated to proliferate or differentiate into specialized trophoblast lineages and are an excellent model for investigating trophoblast differentiation. CITED2 transcript and protein showed a robust induction during Rcho-1 TS cell differentiation. We used an shRNA knockdown approach to disrupt CITED2 expression in order to investigate its involvement in trophoblast cell differentiation. RNA-sequencing was used to examine the impact of CITED2 on trophoblast cell differentiation. CITED2 disruption affected the differentiating trophoblast cell transcriptome. CITED2 possessed a prominent role in the regulation of cell differentiation with links to several signal transduction pathways and to hypoxia-regulated and coagulation processes. In summary, our findings indicate that CITED2 contributes to the regulation of trophoblast cell differentiation.

The FOS transcription factor family differentially controls trophoblast migration and invasion.

Extravillous trophoblast invasion is a fundamental component of human placentation. Invading trophoblast cells promote blood flow to the conceptus by actively remodeling the uterine vasculature. The extent of trophoblast invasion is tightly regulated; aberrant invasion is linked with several obstetrical complications. However, the transcriptional networks responsible for controlling the extent of trophoblast invasion are not well defined. Previous studies have identified high levels of FOS (FOS, FOSB, FOS-like (FOSL) 1, and FOSL2) proteins in extravillous trophoblast cells. These proteins form part of the activating protein-1 (AP-1) transcription factor complex and are implicated in regulating gene networks controlling cellular invasion in diverse biological systems. Therefore, we hypothesized that FOS family proteins play a role in regulating trophoblast invasion. We assessed expression of FOS family proteins in trophoblast cell lines and human placentae at different gestational ages. FOS, FOSB, and FOSL1 proteins were robustly increased in trophoblast cells subject to wound-based migration assays as well as Matrigel-based invasion assays. FOS knockdown resulted in cessation of proliferation and an induction of migration and invasion concomitant with robust expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 1, MMP3, and MMP10. Conversely, FOSL1 knockdown abrogated trophoblast migration and invasion and inhibited the production of MMP1, MMP3, and MMP10. In human placenta, FOS was expressed in proximal anchoring villi in conjunction with phospho-ERK. FOSL1 was temporally expressed only in the distal-most extravillous trophoblast cells, which represent a migratory cell population. Therefore, FOS and FOSL1 exert opposing effects on trophoblast invasion.

Bone morphogenetic protein 4 mediates estrogen-regulated sensory axon plasticity in the adult female reproductive tract.

Peripheral axons are structurally plastic even in the adult, and altered axon density is implicated in many disorders and pain syndromes. However, mechanisms responsible for peripheral axon remodeling are poorly understood. Physiological plasticity is characteristic of the female reproductive tract: vaginal sensory innervation density is low under high estrogen conditions, such as term pregnancy, whereas density is high in low-estrogen conditions, such as menopause. We exploited this system in rats to identify factors responsible for adult peripheral neuroplasticity. Calcitonin gene-related peptide-immunoreactive sensory innervation is distributed primarily within the vaginal submucosa. Submucosal smooth muscle cells express bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4). With low estrogen, BMP4 expression was elevated, indicating negative regulation by this hormone. Vaginal smooth muscle cells induced robust neurite outgrowth by cocultured dorsal root ganglion neurons, which was prevented by neutralizing BMP4 with noggin or anti-BMP4. Estrogen also prevented axon outgrowth, and this was reversed by exogenous BMP4. Nuclear accumulation of phosphorylated Smad1, a primary transcription factor for BMP4 signaling, was high in vagina-projecting sensory neurons after ovariectomy and reduced by estrogen. BMP4 regulation of innervation was confirmed in vivo using lentiviral transduction to overexpress BMP4 in an estrogen-independent manner. Submucosal regions with high virally induced BMP4 expression had high innervation density despite elevated estrogen. These findings show that BMP4, an important factor in early nervous system development and regeneration after injury, is a critical mediator of adult physiological plasticity as well. Altered BMP4 expression may therefore contribute to sensory hyperinnervation, a hallmark of several pain disorders, including vulvodynia.

Natural killer cells direct hemochorial placentation by regulating hypoxia-inducible factor dependent trophoblast lineage decisions.

Natural killer (NK) cells are recruited into the uterine stroma during establishment of the hemochorial placenta and are proposed regulators of uterine spiral artery remodeling. Failures in uterine spiral artery remodeling are linked to diseases of pregnancy. This prompted an investigation of the involvement of NK cells in placentation. NK cell depletion decreased the delivery of proangiogenic factors and delayed uterine spiral artery development, leading to decreased oxygen tension at the placentation site, stabilized hypoxia-inducible factor 1A protein, and redirected trophoblast differentiation to an invasive phenotype. Trophoblast cells replaced the endothelium of uterine spiral arteries extending the depth of the placental vascular bed and accelerating vessel remodeling. Hypoxia-regulated trophoblast lineage decisions, including expansion of invasive trophoblast, could be reproduced in vitro by using rat trophoblast stem cells and were dependent on hypoxia-inducible factor signaling. We conclude that NK cells guide hemochorial placentation through controlling a hypoxia-sensitive adaptive reflex regulating trophoblast lineage decisions.

Importance of Transcript Variants in Transcriptome Analyses.

RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) has become a widely adopted technique for studying gene expression. However, conventional RNA-Seq analyses rely on gene expression (GE) values that aggregate all the transcripts produced under a single gene identifier, overlooking the complexity of transcript variants arising from different transcription start sites or alternative splicing. Transcript variants may encode proteins with diverse functional domains, or noncoding RNAs. This study explored the implications of neglecting transcript variants in RNA-Seq analyses. Among the 1334 transcription factor (TF) genes expressed in mouse embryonic stem (ES) or trophoblast stem (TS) cells, 652 were differentially expressed in TS cells based on GE values (365 upregulated and 287 downregulated, ≥absolute 2-fold changes, false discovery rate (FDR) p-value ≤ 0.05). The 365 upregulated genes expressed 883 transcript variants. Further transcript expression (TE) based analyses identified only 174 (<20%) of the 883 transcripts to be upregulated. The remaining 709 transcripts were either downregulated or showed no significant changes. Meanwhile, the 287 downregulated genes expressed 856 transcript variants and only 153 (<20%) of the 856 transcripts were downregulated. The other 703 transcripts were either upregulated or showed no significant change. Additionally, the 682 insignificant TF genes (GE values < absolute 2-fold changes and/or FDR p-values > 0.05) between ES and TS cells expressed 2215 transcript variants. These included 477 (>21%) differentially expressed transcripts (276 upregulated and 201 downregulated, ≥absolute 2-fold changes, FDR p-value ≤ 0.05). Hence, GE based RNA-Seq analyses do not represent accurate expression levels due to divergent transcripts expression from the same gene. Our findings show that by including transcript variants in RNA-Seq analyses, we can generate a precise understanding of a gene's functional and regulatory landscape; ignoring the variants may result in an erroneous interpretation.

ERß Regulation of Indian Hedgehog Expression in the First Wave of Ovarian Follicles.

Increased activation of ovarian primordial follicles in Erß knockout (ErßKO) rats becomes evident as early as postnatal day 8.5. To identify the ERß-regulated genes that may control ovarian primordial follicle activation, we analyzed the transcriptome profiles of ErßKO rat ovaries collected on postnatal days 4.5, 6.5, and 8.5. Compared to wildtype ovaries, ErßKO ovaries displayed dramatic downregulation of Indian hedgehog (Ihh) expression. IHH-regulated genes, including Hhip, Gli1, and Ptch1, were also downregulated in ErßKO ovaries. This was associated with a downregulation of steroidogenic enzymes Cyp11a1, Cyp19a1, and Hsd17b1. The expression of Ihh remained very low in ErßKO ovaries despite the high levels of Gdf9 and Bmp15, which are known upregulators of Ihh expression in the granulosa cells of activated ovarian follicles. Strikingly, the downregulation of the Ihh gene in ErßKO ovaries began to disappear on postnatal day 16.5 and recovered on postnatal day 21.5. In rat ovaries, the first wave of primordial follicles is rapidly activated after their formation, whereas the second wave of primordial follicles remains dormant in the ovarian cortex and slowly starts activating after postnatal day 12.5. We localized the expression of Ihh mRNA in postnatal day 8.5 wildtype rat ovaries but not in the age-matched ErßKO ovaries. In postnatal day 21.5 ErßKO rat ovaries, we detected Ihh mRNA mainly in the activated follicles in the ovaries' peripheral regions. Our findings indicate that the expression of Ihh in the granulosa cells of the activated first wave of ovarian follicles depends on ERß.

SATB homeobox proteins regulate trophoblast stem cell renewal and differentiation.

The morphogenesis of the hemochorial placenta is dependent upon the precise expansion and differentiation of trophoblast stem (TS) cells. SATB homeobox 1 (SATB1) and SATB2 are related proteins that have been implicated as regulators of some stem cell populations. SATB1 is highly expressed in TS cells, which prompted an investigation of SATB1 and the related SATB2 as regulators of TS cells. SATB1 and SATB2 were highly expressed in rat TS cells maintained in the stem state and rapidly declined following induction of differentiation. SATB proteins were also present within the rat placenta during early stages of its morphogenesis and disappeared as gestation advanced. Silencing Satb1 or Satb2 expression decreased TS cell self-renewal and increased differentiation, whereas ectopic expression of SATB proteins promoted TS cell expansion and blunted differentiation. Eomes, a key transcriptional regulator of TS cells, was identified as a target for SATB proteins. SATB knockdown decreased Eomes transcript levels and promoter activity, whereas SATB ectopic expression increased Eomes transcript levels and promoter activity. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay as well as chromatin immunoprecipitation analyses demonstrated that SATB proteins physically associate with a regulatory site within the Eomes promoter. We conclude that SATB proteins promote TS cell renewal and inhibit differentiation. These actions are mediated in part by regulating the expression of the TS cell stem-associated transcription factor, EOMES.

Hedgehog Signaling in Gonadal Development and Function.

Three distinct hedgehog (HH) molecules, (sonic, desert, and indian), two HH receptors (PTCH1 and PTCH2), a membrane bound activator (SMO), and downstream three transcription factors (GLI1, GLI2, and GLI3) are the major components of the HH signaling. These signaling molecules were initially identified in Drosophila melanogaster. Later, it has been found that the HH system is highly conserved across species and essential for organogenesis. HH signaling pathways play key roles in the development of the brain, face, skeleton, musculature, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. While the sonic HH (SHH) pathway plays a major role in the development of the central nervous system, the desert HH (DHH) regulates the development of the gonads, and the indian HH (IHH) acts on the development of bones and joints. There are also overlapping roles among the HH molecules. In addition to the developmental role of HH signaling in embryonic life, the pathways possess vital physiological roles in testes and ovaries during adult life. Disruption of DHH and/or IHH signaling results in ineffective gonadal steroidogenesis and gametogenesis. While DHH regulates the male gonadal functions, ovarian functions are regulated by both DHH and IHH. This review article focuses on the roles of HH signaling in gonadal development and reproductive functions with an emphasis on ovarian functions. We have acknowledged the original research work that initially reported the findings and discussed the subsequent studies that have further analyzed the role of HH signaling in testes and ovaries.

FGF4-dependent stem cells derived from rat blastocysts differentiate along the trophoblast lineage.

Differentiated trophoblast cell lineages arise from trophoblast stem (TS) cells. To date such a stem cell population has only been established in the mouse. The objective of this investigation was to establish TS cell populations from rat blastocysts. Blastocysts were cultured individually on a feeder layer of rat embryonic fibroblasts (REFs) in fibroblast growth factor-4 (FGF4) and heparin supplemented culture medium. Once cell colonies were established REF feeder layers could be replaced with REF conditioned medium. The blastocyst-derived cell lines, in either proliferative or differentiated states, did not express genes indicative of ICM-derived tissues. In the proliferative state the cells expressed established stem cell-associated markers of TS cells. Cells ceased proliferation and differentiated when FGF4, heparin, and REF conditioned medium were removed. Differentiation was characterized by a decline of stem cell-associated marker gene expression, the appearance of large polyploid cells (trophoblast giant cells), and the expression of trophoblast differentiation-associated genes. Collectively, the data indicate that the rat blastocyst-derived cell lines not only possess many features characteristic of mouse TS cells but also possess some distinct properties. These rat TS cell lines represent valuable new in vitro models for analyses of mechanisms controlling TS cell renewal and differentiation.

Regulatory pathways controlling the endovascular invasive trophoblast cell lineage.

Hemochorial placentation is characterized by trophoblast-directed uterine spiral artery remodeling. The rat and human both possess hemochorial placentation and exhibit remarkable similarities regarding the depth of trophoblast invasion and the extent of uterine vascular modification. In vitro and in vivo research methodologies have been established using the rat as an animal model to investigate the extravillous/invasive trophoblast lineage. With these research approaches, two signaling pathways controlling the differentiation and invasion of the trophoblast cell lineage have been identified: i) hypoxia/hypoxia inducible factor and ii) phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT/Fos like antigen 1. Dissection of these pathways has facilitated identification of fundamental regulators of the invasive trophoblast cell lineage.

A Simple, Robust, and Cost-effective Method for Genotyping Small-scale Mutations.

Background and objectives: Genotyping is an important tool for studying gene functions in animals or detecting genetic variants in humans. Various methods using low to high concentrations of agarose or polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis have been developed for genotyping. These methods rely on the detection of large-size differences (20-2,000 bp) of targeted PCR products between a wild-type gene and a mutant gene. Endonuclease digestion was introduced to identify heterozygous mutations, but it was not possible to differentiate the wild-type from the homozygous mutants with the same or similar size. This study thus developed a novel, simple, and reliable test for genotyping animals or cells following genetic modifications. Methods: We developed an improved and simple method that used 2% agarose gel electrophoresis following T7E1 or Surveyor endonuclease digestion to firstly separate the heterozygous mutations from the wild-type or homozygous mutations. By adding a wild-type PCR product to a potentially homozygous product, which would form heteroduplexes, we could then separate the wild-type from a homozygous mutation with a nearly identical size or only a single base pair substitution without Sanger sequencing. Results: We verified this method in genotyping zebrafish mutants with a 2-8-bp deletion or insertion and mouse mutants with a 1- or 8-bp substitution. The wild-type, heterozygous, and homozygous mutations ranged 1-8 bp were clearly differentiated on agarose gel. Sanger sequencing also confirmed our genotyping results. Conclusions: This novel and improved genotyping method may have a broad application in many clinical and research laboratories for rapid and economical genotyping of patients and animals with a small area deletion or single base pair substitution, particularly in the era of gene editing or in those with naturally occurring mutations.

The role of Kisspeptin signaling in Oocyte maturation.

Kisspeptins (KPs) secreted from the hypothalamic KP neurons act on KP receptors (KPRs) in gonadotropin (GPN) releasing hormone (GnRH) neurons to produce GnRH. GnRH acts on pituitary gonadotrophs to induce secretion of GPNs, namely follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which are essential for ovarian follicle development, oocyte maturation and ovulation. Thus, hypothalamic KPs regulate oocyte maturation indirectly through GPNs. KPs and KPRs are also expressed in the ovarian follicles across species. Recent studies demonstrated that intraovarian KPs also act directly on the KPRs expressed in oocytes to promote oocyte maturation and ovulation. In this review article, we have summarized published reports on the role of hypothalamic and ovarian KP-signaling in oocyte maturation. Gonadal steroid hormones regulate KP secretion from hypothalamic KP neurons, which in turn induces GPN secretion from the hypothalamic-pituitary (HP) axis. On the other hand, GPNs secreted from the HP axis act on the granulosa cells (GCs) and upregulate the expression of ovarian KPs. While KPs are expressed predominantly in the GCs, the KPRs are in the oocytes. Expression of KPs in the ovaries increases with the progression of the estrous cycle and peaks during the preovulatory GPN surge. Intrafollicular KP levels in the ovaries rise with the advancement of developmental stages. Moreover, loss of KPRs in oocytes in mice leads to failure of oocyte maturation and ovulation similar to that of premature ovarian insufficiency (POI). These findings suggest that GC-derived KPs may act on the KPRs in oocytes during their preovulatory maturation. In addition to the intraovarian role of KP-signaling in oocyte maturation, in vivo, a direct role of KP has been identified during in vitro maturation of sheep, porcine, and rat oocytes. KP-stimulation of rat oocytes, in vitro, resulted in Ca2+ release and activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2. In vitro treatment of rat or porcine oocytes with KPs upregulated messenger RNA levels of the factors that favor oocyte maturation. In clinical trials, human KP-54 has also been administered successfully to patients undergoing assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) for increasing oocyte maturation. Exogenous KPs can induce GPN secretion from hypothalamus; however, the possibility of direct KP action on the oocytes cannot be excluded. Understanding the direct in vivo and in vitro roles of KP-signaling in oocyte maturation will help in developing novel KP-based ARTs.

DOT1L Mediated Gene Repression in Extensively Self-Renewing Erythroblasts.

DOT1L is essential for embryonic hematopoiesis but the precise mechanisms of its action remain unclear. The only recognized function of DOT1L is histone H3 lysine 79 (H3K79) methylation, which has been implicated in both transcriptional activation and repression. We observed that deletion of the mouse Dot1L gene (Dot1L-KO) or selective mutation of its methyltransferase domain (Dot1L-MM) can differentially affect early embryonic erythropoiesis. However, both mutations result in embryonic lethality by mid-gestation and growth of hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) is similarly affected in extensively self-renewing erythroblast (ESRE) cultures established from yolk sac cells. To understand DOT1L-mediated gene regulation and to clarify the role of H3K79 methylation, we analyzed whole transcriptomes of wildtype and Dot1L-mutant ESRE cells. We observed that more than 80% of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were upregulated in the mutant ESRE cells either lacking the DOT1L protein or the DOT1L methyltransferase activity. However, approximately 45% of the DEGs were unique to either mutant group, indicating that DOT1L possesses both methyltransferase-dependent and -independent gene regulatory functions. Analyses of Gene Ontology and signaling pathways for the DEGs were consistent, with DEGs that were found to be common or unique to either mutant group. Genes related to proliferation of HPCs were primarily impacted in Dot1L-KO cells, while genes related to HPC development were affected in the Dot1L-MM cells. A subset of genes related to differentiation of HPCs were affected in both mutant groups of ESREs. Our findings suggest that DOT1L primarily acts to repress gene expression in HPCs, and this function can be independent of its methyltransferase activity.