Rectal cancer lateral pelvic sidewall lymph nodes: a review of controversies and management.

BACKGROUND: The management of lateral pelvic lymphadenopathy in low rectal cancer poses an oncological and technical challenge. Interpretation of the literature is confounded by different approaches to management in the East and West, and a lack of randomized data from which to draw accurate conclusions regarding the optimal approach. Recent collaboration between Eastern and Western centres has increased the standardization of care. Despite this, significant differences in international guidelines remain. The aim of this review was to appraise the available literature and propose a management algorithm. METHODS: A literature review of all relevant studies was performed to summarize the historical evidence, as well as establish the significance of clinically positive lateral pelvic sidewall nodes, and the role of neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy and lateral pelvic node dissection. A management algorithm was developed based on this review of the literature. RESULTS: The management of pelvic sidewall lymphadenopathy in rectal cancer is non-standardized, with geographical differences. The mechanism of lateral lymphatic spread is well defined; the risk increases with lower tumour height and advanced T category. Existing data indicate that acceptable disease-free and overall survival can be achieved by neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy with selective lateral pelvic node dissection. CONCLUSION: Suspicious lateral pelvic sidewall nodes, particularly in the internal iliac chain, should be considered as resectable locoregional disease, and surgery offered for enlarged nodes that do not respond to neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy.

ANTECEDENTES: El tratamiento de las adenopatías en la pared pélvica lateral en el céncer de recto inferior plantea un desafío oncológico y técnico. La interpretación de la literatura es confusa por los diferentes abordajes en Oriente y Occidente y la falta de estudios aleatorizados a partir de los cuales extraer conclusiones precisas sobre cuél es el enfoque óptimo. La reciente colaboración entre los centros orientales y occidentales ha aumentado la estandarización del tratamiento. A pesar de ello, persisten diferencias significativas en las guías internacionales. El objetivo de esta revisión fue evaluar la literatura disponible y proponer un algoritmo terapéutico. MÉTODOS: Se realizó una revisión de la literatura de todos los estudios relevantes para resumir las evidencias existentes, así como para determinar la importancia de las adenopatías de la pared lateral pélvica clínicamente positivas, el papel de la quimiorradioterapia neoadyuvante (neoadjuvant chemoradiotherapy, NCRT) y de la linfadenectomía pélvica lateral (lateral pelvic node dissection, LPND). Se desarrolló un algoritmo de tratamiento basado en esta revisión de la literatura. RESULTADOS: El tratamiento de las adenopatías de la pared lateral de la pelvis en el céncer de recto no esté estandarizado y sigue habiendo diferencias geogréficas. El mecanismo de la diseminación linfética lateral esté bien definido con un mayor riesgo en los tumores de recto inferior y con un estadio T avanzado. Los datos existentes demuestran que se puede obtener una supervivencia libre de enfermedad y global aceptables mediante NCRT con LPND selectiva. CONCLUSIÓN: Las adenopatías sospechosas en la pared lateral de la pelvis, en particular en la cadena ilíaca interna, deben considerarse enfermedad locorregional resecable y se debe ofrecer cirugía para los ganglios aumentados de tamaño que no responden a la NCRT.

Influence of the level of sacrectomy on survival in patients with locally advanced and recurrent rectal cancer.

BACKGROUND: Exenterative surgery for locally advanced rectal cancer may involve partial sacrectomy to achieve complete resection. High sacrectomy is technically challenging, and can be associated with high morbidity and mortality rates. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of the level of sacrectomy on the survival of patients with locally advanced rectal cancer. METHODS: This was an international multicentre retrospective analysis of patients undergoing exenterative abdominosacrectomy between July 2006 and June 2016. High sacrectomy was defined as resection at or above the junction of S2-S3; low sacrectomy was below the S2-S3 junction. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was used to assess overall survival and cancer-specific survival. Predictive factors were determined using Cox regression analysis. RESULTS: A total of 345 patients were identified, of whom 91 underwent high sacrectomy and 254 low sacrectomy. There was no difference in 5-year overall survival (53 versus 44·1 per cent; P = 0·216) or cancer-specific survival (60 versus 56·1 per cent; P = 0·526) between high and low sacrectomy. Negative margin rates were similar for primary and recurrent disease: 65 of 90 (72 per cent) versus 97 of 153 (63·4 per cent) (P = 0·143). Level of sacrectomy was not a significant predictor of mortality (P = 0·053). Positive resection margin and advancing age were the only significant predictors for death, with hazard ratios of 2·78 (P < 0·001) and 1·02 (P = 0·020) respectively. CONCLUSION: There was no survival difference between patients who underwent high or low sacrectomy. In appropriately selected patients, high sacrectomy is feasible and safe.

The Association of Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland consensus guidelines in surgery for inflammatory bowel disease.

AIM: There is a requirement of an expansive and up to date review of surgical management of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that can dovetail with the medical guidelines produced by the British Society of Gastroenterology. METHODS: Surgeons who are members of the ACPGBI with a recognised interest in IBD were invited to contribute various sections of the guidelines. They were directed to produce a procedure based document using literature searches that were systematic, comprehensible, transparent and reproducible. Levels of evidence were graded. An editorial board was convened to ensure consistency of style, presentation and quality. Each author was asked to provide a set of recommendations which were evidence based and unambiguous. These recommendations were submitted to the whole guideline group and scored. They were then refined and submitted to a second vote. Only those that achieved >80% consensus at level 5 (strongly agree) or level 4 (agree) after 2 votes were included in the guidelines. RESULTS: All aspects of surgical care for IBD have been included along with 157 recommendations for management. CONCLUSION: These guidelines provide an up to date and evidence based summary of the current surgical knowledge in the management of IBD and will serve as a useful practical text for clinicians performing this type of surgery.

Association of Coloproctology of Great Britain and Ireland consensus exercise on surgical management of fistulating perianal Crohn's disease.

AIM: Management of fistulating perianal Crohn's disease (fpCD) is a significant challenge for a colorectal surgeon. A recent survey of surgical practice in this condition showed variation in management approaches. As a result we set out to devise recommendations for practice for UK colorectal surgeons. METHOD: Results from a national survey were used to devise a set of potential consensus statements. Consultant colorectal surgeons were invited to participate in the exercise via the previous survey and the mailing list of the professional society. Iterative voting was performed on each statement using a five-point Likert scale and electronic voting, with opportunity for discussion and refinement between each vote. Consensus was defined as > 80% agreement. RESULTS: Seventeen surgeons and two patient representatives voted upon 51 statements. Consensus was achieved on 39 items. Participants advocated a patient-centred approach by a colorectal specialist, within strong multidisciplinary teamworking. The use of anti-TNFα therapy is advocated. Where definitive surgical techniques are considered they should be carefully selected to avoid adverse impact on function. Ano/rectovaginal fistulas should be managed by specialists in fistulating disease. Stoma or proctectomy could be discussed earlier in a patient's treatment pathway to improve choice, as they may improve quality of life. CONCLUSION: This consensus provides principles and guidance for best practice in managing patients with fpCD.

Surgical management of fistulating perianal Crohn's disease: a UK survey.

AIM: Around one-third of patients with Crohn's disease are affected by Crohn's fistula-in-ano (pCD). It typically follows a chronic course and patients undergo long-term medical and surgical therapy. We set out to describe current surgical practice in the management of pCD in the UK. METHOD: A survey of surgical management of pCD was designed by an expert group of colorectal surgeons and gastroenterologists. This assessed acute, elective, multidisciplinary and definitive surgical management. A pilot of the questionnaire was undertaken at the 2015 meeting of the Digestive Disease Federation. The survey was refined and distributed nationally through the trainee collaborative networks. RESULTS: National rollout obtained responses from 133 of 179 surgeons approached (response rate 74.3%). At first operation, 32% of surgeons would always consider drainage of sepsis and 31.1% would place a draining seton. At first elective operation, 66.6% would routinely insert of draining seton, and 84.4% would avoid cutting seton. An IBD multidisciplinary team was available to 87.6% of respondents, although only 25.1% routinely discussed pCD patients. Anti-tumour necrosis factor-alpha therapy was routinely considered by 64.2%, although 44.2% left medical management to gastroenterologists. Common definitive procedures were removal of the seton only (70.7%), fistulotomy (57.1%), advancement flap (38.9%), fistula plug (36.4%) and ligation of intersphincteric track (LIFT) procedure (31.8%). Indications for diverting stoma or proctectomy were intractable sepsis, incontinence and poor quality of life. CONCLUSION: This survey has demonstrated areas of common practice, but has also highlighted divergent practice including choices of definitive surgery and multimodal management. Practical guidelines are required to support colorectal surgeons in the UK.

Development of a conceptual framework of health-related quality of life in locally recurrent rectal cancer.

AIM: The surgical management of locally recurrent rectal cancer (LRRC) has become widely accepted to afford cure and improve quality of life in this subset of patients. Thus far, traditional surgical and oncological markers have been used to highlight the success of surgical intervention. The use of patient-reported outcomes, specifically health-related quality of life (HRQoL), is sparse in these patients. This may be in part due to the lack of well-designed, validated instruments. This study identifies HRQoL issues relevant to patients undergoing surgery for LRRC, with the aim of developing a conceptual framework of HRQoL specific to LRRC to enable measurement of patient-reported outcomes in this cohort of patients. METHOD: Qualitative focus groups were undertaken at two institutions to identify relevant HRQoL themes. The principles of thematic content analysis were used to analysis data. NViVo10 was used to analyse data. RESULTS: Twenty-one patients participated in six consecutive focus groups. Two patterns of themes emerged related to HRQoL and healthcare service delivery and utilization. Identified themes related to HRQoL included symptoms, sexual function, psychological impact, role and social functioning and future perspective. Under healthcare service and delivery and utilization the subdomain of disease management, treatment expectations and healthcare professionals were identified. CONCLUSION: This is the first qualitative study undertaken exclusively in patients with LRRC to ascertain relevant HRQoL outcomes. The impact of LRRC on patients is wide-ranging and extends beyond traditional HRQoL outcomes. The study operationalizes the identified outcomes into a conceptual framework, which will provide the basis for the development of a LRRC-specific patient-reported outcome measure.

Systematic review of emergency laparoscopic colorectal resection.

BACKGROUND: Laparoscopic surgery (LS) has become standard practice for a range of elective general surgical operations. Its role in emergency general surgery is gaining momentum. This study aimed to assess the outcomes of LS compared with open surgery (OS) for colorectal resections in the emergency setting. METHODS: A systematic review was performed of studies reporting outcomes of laparoscopic colorectal resections in the acute or emergency setting in patients aged over 18 years, between January 1966 and January 2013. RESULTS: Twenty-two studies were included, providing outcomes for 5557 patients: 932 laparoscopic and 4625 open emergency resections. Median (range) operating time was 184 (63-444) min for LS versus 148 (61-231) min for OS. Median (range) length of stay was 10 (3-23) and 15 (6-33) days in the LS and OS groups respectively. The overall median (range) complication rate was 27.8 (0-33.3) and 48.3 (9-72) per cent respectively. There were insufficient data to detect differences in reoperation and readmission rates. CONCLUSION: Emergency laparoscopic colorectal resection, where technically feasible, has better short-term outcomes than open resection.

Preoperative assessment of retrorectal tumours.

BACKGROUND: Retrorectal tumours present diagnostic and surgical challenges. This study aimed to identify whether preoperative imaging and/or biopsy provide diagnostic accuracy. METHODS: A consecutive series of patients who had undergone excision of a retrorectal tumour were identified from a database (2002-2013). Details of patient demographics, preoperative presentation, imaging, biopsy, surgical procedure, and gross and microscopic pathology were reviewed. Preoperative imaging and/or biopsies were compared with eventual pathology findings. RESULTS: In total, 76 patients were identified, all of whom had undergone preoperative cross-sectional imaging whereas only 22 had preoperative biopsy. Imaging correctly discriminated benign from malignant tumours in 72 of the 76 patients (specificity 97 per cent, sensitivity 88 per cent, positive predictive value 88 per cent and negative predictive value 97 per cent). The corresponding values for preoperative biopsy (benign versus malignant) were 100, 83, 100 and 93 per cent. None of the four patients who were assessed incorrectly as having benign or malignant disease on imaging would have undergone an alternative procedure had this been known before surgery. Preoperative biopsy did not significantly influence patient management, and the absence of preoperative biopsy had no detrimental effect; a definitive preoperative histological diagnosis would not have influenced subsequent management. CONCLUSION: Preoperative imaging was accurate in the assessment of retrorectal tumours, whereas biopsy did not add to the surgical strategy.

Laparoscopic excision of retrorectal tumours.

AIM: The aim of this study was to demonstrate a laparoscopic technique for the excision of retrorectal tumours. METHOD: A retrospective review of cases identified from a prospectively maintained database was undertaken. RESULTS: Ten patients (seven female; median age 45 years (range 23-79) underwent successful laparoscopic excision with no significant morbidity or intra-operative mishaps. CONCLUSION: The procedure was deemed to be safe and we include a video to show the operative technique.

Transvaginal repair of recurrent pouch-vaginal fistula.

AIM: Pouch-vaginal fistula is an uncommon but unpleasant complication. The chance of successful repair with various surgical procedures is around 50% and the early promise of collagen button plugs was not followed by good long-term results. We report a series of patients who underwent transvaginal repair of pouch-vaginal fistula after failed collagen plugs accompanied by a video to show the operative technique. METHOD: Patients were identified from a prospectively maintained database. Patient demographics, operation notes, complications and ultimate outcome were recorded. RESULTS: Eleven patients, each of whom had previously undergone an attempt to close the fistula with a collagen button plug, underwent transvaginal repair. Nine (81%) were successful at a median follow-up of 14 (6-56) months. The remaining two patients reported symptomatic improvement. CONCLUSION: Pouch-vaginal fistula can be successfully closed by the transvaginal technique after a failed button plug procedure.

Surgical strategies in the management of recurrent retrorectal tumours.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to review a consecutive series of patients who had undergone excision of recurrent retrorectal tumours and propose surgical strategies to tackle such recurrences. METHODS: Patients were identified from a prospectively maintained database. Demographic details, preoperative imaging and pathology, intra- and post-operative problems and follow-up details were noted. RESULTS: Fifteen patients (11 females) with a median age of 38 years (range 19-75 years) underwent excision of recurrent retrorectal tumours (13 benign) between 2002 and 2012. The median interval between the first and second surgical procedure was 3.5 years (range 1-19 years). Three patients had surgery performed via the transperineal approach, while 12 patients had resection via the abdominal approach. En bloc resection of adjacent organs was needed in three patients. Major pelvic bleeding occurred in two patients. R0 resection was achieved in all 15 patients, and there have been no subsequent recurrences [median follow-up 73 months (range 12-148 months)]. CONCLUSIONS: Benign recurrent retrorectal tumours can be safely excised usually without sacrifice of adjacent organs, while en bloc resection is needed for malignant tumours.

Surgical resection of recurrent colonic cancer.

BACKGROUND: Locoregional recurrence of colonic cancer includes anastomotic recurrence, associated nodal masses, masses that involve the abdominal wall and pelvic masses. The aim of this study was to report the outcome of resection of such recurrences and to provide guidance on the management of this disease. METHODS: Patients were identified from a prospectively maintained database. Data were obtained on demographics, surgical procedure, morbidity, histopathology and outcome. Univariable and multivariable analyses of factors influencing survival were performed using stepwise Cox logistic regression. RESULTS: Forty-two patients (21 men; median age 61 (range 41-82) years) underwent resection of recurrent colonic cancer between 2003 and 2011. The median interval between resection of the primary and recurrent colonic tumour was 37·5 (interquartile range 7-91) months. The recurrences developed at the previous anastomosis (9 patients), elsewhere within the abdominal cavity or wall (8) and as discrete masses within the pelvic cavity (25). Eighteen of 42 patients underwent resection of hepatic or pulmonary metastases at some stage after resection of the primary tumour. Median survival was 29 months after R0 resection and 26 months after R1 resection of the recurrent tumour (P = 0·226). The survival benefit depended on the location of the recurrence (median survival after resection of recurrent disease: anastomotic 33 months, pelvic 26 months, abdominal 19 months; P = 0·010). CONCLUSION: This study described a classification system, management algorithm and prognostic factors for recurrent colonic cancer. The distribution of disease influenced survival. Long-term survival was achieved, including a subset of patients with drop metastases and/or previous metastasectomy.

Outcome of surgical resection of second-time locally recurrent rectal cancer.

BACKGROUND: Locally recurrent rectal cancer relapses in the pelvis in up to 60 per cent of patients following resection. This study assessed the surgical and oncological outcomes of patients who underwent surgery for re-recurrent rectal cancer. METHODS: Patients who underwent second-time resection of locally recurrent rectal cancer between 2001 and 2010 were eligible for inclusion. Data were collected on demographics, presentation of disease, preoperative staging imaging, adjuvant therapy, operative detail, histopathology and follow-up status (clinical and imaging) for the primary tumour, and first and second recurrences. RESULTS: Thirty patients (of 56 discussed at the multidisciplinary meeting) underwent resection of re-recurrent rectal cancer. Postoperative morbidity occurred in nine patients but none died within 30 days. Negative resection margins (R0) were achieved in ten patients, microscopic margin positivity (R1) was evident in 15 and macroscopic involvement (R2) was found in five. Although no patient had distant metastatic disease, 22 had involvement of the pelvic side wall. One- and 3-year overall survival rates were 77 and 27 per cent respectively, with a median overall survival of 23 (range 3-78) months. An R0 resection conferred a survival benefit (median survival 32 (11-78) months versus 19 (6-33) months after R1 and 7 (3-10) months after R2 resection). CONCLUSION: Surgical resection of re-recurrent rectal cancer had comparable surgical and oncological outcomes to initial recurrences in well selected patients.

Injectable collagen for the treatment of fecal incontinence: long-term results.

BACKGROUND: Fecal incontinence is a distressing condition that is difficult to treat. Injection of bulking agents has been used to treat passive fecal incontinence. However, no long-term results are available. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to assess the long-term clinical effectiveness of intra-anal injection of collagen for passive fecal incontinence. DESIGN: This research is a retrospective cohort study from a prospectively collected database SETTING: This investigation took place in a high-volume tertiary colorectal department. PATIENTS: All patients who underwent intra-anal injection of collagen for passive fecal incontinence with internal sphincter dysfunction between January 2006 and December 2009 were included in the study. Data including demographic details, preoperative anorectal physiology, and outcome measures were collected prospectively and maintained in a database MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcomes measured were the Cleveland Clinic Florida incontinence score and the responses to a subjective patient satisfaction questionnaire before the procedure and at subsequent follow-up visits. Data were analyzed by using SPSS v19.0. RESULTS: One hundred patients (70 female; mean age, 61 years (range, 36-82)) were followed up for a minimum duration of 36 months. Fifty-six patients (56%) had an improvement in fecal incontinence score from a mean of 14 (range, 9-18) to a mean of 8 (range, 5-14). A total of 68% reported subjective improvement in symptoms. Thirty-eight patients (38%) required a repeat injection of collagen, and a further 15 patients required a third injection. The median interval between the first and final injection was 12 months (range, 4-16 months). Age was the only independent predictor of successful outcome (p = 0.032). There was no morbidity. LIMITATIONS: This study was limited by its nonrandomized retrospective design. CONCLUSIONS: Injection of collagen into the internal anal sphincter is simple, safe, and effective in patients with passive fecal incontinence, although repeat injections are necessary in approximately half of the patients.

Surgery for recurrent rectal cancer: higher and wider?

AIM: There has been a steady increase in the number of centres that carry out resection of locally recurrent rectal cancer (LRRC). The aim of this review was to highlight the present management and suggest technical strategies that may improve survival and quality of life. METHOD: The review identified relevant studies from an electronic search of MEDLINE and PubMed databases between 1980 and 2011. References in published articles were also reviewed. RESULTS: Surgical intervention offers the best hope to control LRRC but the proportion of patients offered this remains small. Certain contraindications previously considered to be absolute should now be thought of as relative. CONCLUSION: Awareness of the surgical options and a willingness to consider more aggressive options may result in more patients being considered for potentially curative resection.

A systematic review of peripheral nerve injury following laparoscopic colorectal surgery.

AIM: The risk of peripheral nerve injury associated with laparoscopic colorectal surgery has not been well established. We aimed to identify the number and type of peripheral nerve injuries associated with patient positioning in laparoscopic surgery. METHOD: A systematic review of MEDLINE and Embase was undertaken of English and non-English language articles. Search terms included the key words: laparoscopic, colorectal, nerve injury, nerve damage, brachial plexus, peripheral neuropathy, peripheral nerve injury, nerve and colonic injury. Articles were included where at least one peripheral nerve injury had been documented related to patient positioning at laparoscopic colorectal surgery. Data extraction for articles was conducted by two authors, using predefined data fields. RESULTS: Ten cases have been reported in the literature. All injuries involved the brachial plexus. They were associated with a lengthy procedure and abduction of the arm. CONCLUSION: Although rare, the surgeon and theatre team must be aware of the risk of peripheral nerve injury when positioning patients for laparoscopic colorectal procedures.

Partial anterior sacrectomy with nerve preservation to treat locally advanced rectal cancer.

AIM: Most studies that have reported outcomes after composite abdomino-sacral resection for locally advanced/recurrent rectal cancer have involved resections below the S2/3 disc space. Involvement of the sacrum above this level is uncommon and, until recently, was considered a contraindication to resection. METHOD: We report here a surgical technique to deal with high sacral involvement with an anterior approach and maintenance of sacropelvic stability. RESULTS: The operative findings confirmed a locally perforated rectal cancer with an associated abscess cavity and direct invasion into S2. Given the likelihood that a complete dislocation of the sacrum would cause significant neurological damage and pelvic instability without oncological benefit, we opted for a partial high anterior sacrectomy with nerve preservation. The patient made an uncomplicated recovery without neurological deficit and was able to walk with the aid of crutches from postoperative day 3. CONCLUSION: While a high sacral transection is appropriate for some patients with locally advanced/recurrent rectal cancer, operative decisions and options should be tailored to each individual.

Intraoperative, postoperative and reoperative problems with ileoanal pouches.

BACKGROUND: Proctocolectomy with ileal pouch-anal anastomosis (IPAA) has been developed and refined since its introduction in the late 1970s. Nonetheless, it is a procedure associated with significant morbidity. The aim of this review was to provide a structured approach to the challenges that surgeons and physicians encounter in the management of intraoperative, postoperative and reoperative problems associated with ileoanal pouches. METHODS: The review was based on relevant studies identified from an electronic search of MEDLINE, Embase and PubMed databases from 1975 to April 2011. There were no language or publication year restrictions. Original references in published articles were reviewed. RESULTS: Although the majority of patients experience long-term success with an ileoanal pouch, significant morbidity surrounds IPAA. Surgical intervention is often critical to achieve optimal control of the situation. CONCLUSION: A structured management plan will minimize the adverse consequences of the problems associated with pouches.