Randomized Trial of Closed-Loop Control in Very Young Children with Type 1 Diabetes.

BACKGROUND: The possible advantage of hybrid closed-loop therapy (i.e., artificial pancreas) over sensor-augmented pump therapy in very young children with type 1 diabetes is unclear. METHODS: In this multicenter, randomized, crossover trial, we recruited children 1 to 7 years of age with type 1 diabetes who were receiving insulin-pump therapy at seven centers across Austria, Germany, Luxembourg, and the United Kingdom. Participants received treatment in two 16-week periods, in random order, in which the closed-loop system was compared with sensor-augmented pump therapy (control). The primary end point was the between-treatment difference in the percentage of time that the sensor glucose measurement was in the target range (70 to 180 mg per deciliter) during each 16-week period. The analysis was conducted according to the intention-to-treat principle. Key secondary end points included the percentage of time spent in a hyperglycemic state (glucose level, >180 mg per deciliter), the glycated hemoglobin level, the mean sensor glucose level, and the percentage of time spent in a hypoglycemic state (glucose level, <70 mg per deciliter). Safety was assessed. RESULTS: A total of 74 participants underwent randomization. The mean (±SD) age of the participants was 5.6±1.6 years, and the baseline glycated hemoglobin level was 7.3±0.7%. The percentage of time with the glucose level in the target range was 8.7 percentage points (95% confidence interval [CI], 7.4 to 9.9) higher during the closed-loop period than during the control period (P<0.001). The mean adjusted difference (closed-loop minus control) in the percentage of time spent in a hyperglycemic state was -8.5 percentage points (95% CI, -9.9 to -7.1), the difference in the glycated hemoglobin level was -0.4 percentage points (95% CI, -0.5 to -0.3), and the difference in the mean sensor glucose level was -12.3 mg per deciliter (95% CI, -14.8 to -9.8) (P<0.001 for all comparisons). The time spent in a hypoglycemic state was similar with the two treatments (P = 0.74). The median time spent in the closed-loop mode was 95% (interquartile range, 92 to 97) over the 16-week closed-loop period. One serious adverse event of severe hypoglycemia occurred during the closed-loop period. One serious adverse event that was deemed to be unrelated to treatment occurred. CONCLUSIONS: A hybrid closed-loop system significantly improved glycemic control in very young children with type 1 diabetes, without increasing the time spent in hypoglycemia. (Funded by the European Commission and others; ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT03784027.).

Differences in retinopathy prevalence and associated risk factors across 11 countries in three continents: A cross-sectional study of 156,090 children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the prevalence, time trends, and risk factors of diabetic retinopathy (DR) among youth with type 1 diabetes (T1D) from 11 countries (Australia, Austria, Denmark, England, Germany, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Slovenia, United States, and Wales). SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Data on individuals aged 10-21 years with T1D for >1 year during the period 2000-2020 were analyzed. We used a cross-sectional design using the most recent year of visit to investigate the time trend. For datasets with longitudinal data, we aggregated the variables per participant and observational year, using data of the most recent year to take the longest observation period into account. DR screening was performed through quality assured national screening programs. Multiple logistic regression models adjusted for the year of the eye examination, age, gender, minority status, and duration of T1D were used to evaluate clinical characteristics and the risk of DR. RESULTS: Data from 156,090 individuals (47.1% female, median age 15.7 years, median duration of diabetes 5.2 years) were included. Overall, the unadjusted prevalence of any DR was 5.8%, varying from 0.0% (0/276) to 16.2% between countries. The probability of DR increased with longer disease duration (aORper-1-year-increase  = 1.04, 95% CI: 1.03-1.04, p < 0.0001), and decreased over time (aORper-1-year-increase  = 0.99, 95% CI: 0.98-1.00, p = 0.0093). Evaluating possible modifiable risk factors in the exploratory analysis, the probability of DR increased with higher HbA1c (aORper-1-mmol/mol-increase-in-HbA1c  = 1.03, 95% CI: 1.03-1.03, p < 0.0001) and was higher among individuals with hypertension (aOR = 1.24, 95% CI: 1.11-1.38, p < 0.0001) and smokers (aOR = 1.30, 95% CI: 1.17-1.44, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of DR in this large cohort of youth with T1D varied among countries, increased with diabetes duration, decreased over time, and was associated with higher HbA1c, hypertension, and smoking.

Parents' views about healthcare professionals having real-time remote access to their young child's diabetes data: Qualitative study.

OBJECTIVES: We explored parents' views about healthcare professionals having remote access to their young child's insulin and glucose data during a clinical trial to inform use of data sharing in routine pediatric diabetes care. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Interviews with 33 parents of 30 children (aged 1-7 years) with type 1 diabetes participating in a randomized trial (KidsAP02) comparing hybrid closed-loop system use with sensor-augmented pump therapy. Data were analyzed using a qualitative descriptive approach. RESULTS: Parents reported multiple benefits to healthcare professionals being able to remotely access their child's glucose and insulin data during the trial, despite some initial concerns regarding the insights offered into everyday family life. Key benefits included: less work uploading/sharing data; improved consultations; and, better clinical input and support from healthcare professionals between consultations. Parents noted how healthcare professionals' real-time data access facilitated remote delivery of consultations during the COVID-19 pandemic, and how these were more suitable for young children than face-to-face appointments. Parents endorsed use of real-time data sharing in routine clinical care, subject to caveats regarding data access, security, and privacy. They also proposed that, if data sharing were used, consultations for closed-loop system users in routine clinical care could be replaced with needs-driven, ad-hoc contact. CONCLUSIONS: Real-time data sharing can offer clinical, logistical, and quality-of-life benefits and enhance opportunities for remote consultations, which may be more appropriate for young children. Wider rollout would require consideration of ethical and cybersecurity issues and, given the heightened intrusion on families' privacy, a non-judgmental, collaborative approach by healthcare professionals.

Temporal trends in diabetic ketoacidosis at diagnosis of paediatric type 1 diabetes between 2006 and 2016: results from 13 countries in three continents.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: The aim of this work was to evaluate geographical variability and trends in the prevalence of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), between 2006 and 2016, at the diagnosis of childhood-onset type 1 diabetes in 13 countries over three continents. METHODS: An international retrospective study on DKA at diagnosis of diabetes was conducted. Data on age, sex, date of diabetes diagnosis, ethnic minority status and presence of DKA at diabetes onset were obtained from Australia, Austria, Czechia, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Norway, Slovenia, Sweden, USA and the UK (Wales). Mean prevalence was estimated for the entire period, both overall and by country, adjusted for sex and age group. Temporal trends in annual prevalence of DKA were estimated using logistic regression analysis for each country, before and after adjustment for sex, age group and ethnic minority status. RESULTS: During the study period, new-onset type 1 diabetes was diagnosed in 59,000 children (median age [interquartile range], 9.0 years [5.5-11.7]; male sex, 52.9%). The overall adjusted DKA prevalence was 29.9%, with the lowest prevalence in Sweden and Denmark and the highest in Luxembourg and Italy. The adjusted DKA prevalence significantly increased over time in Australia, Germany and the USA while it decreased in Italy. Preschool children, adolescents and children from ethnic minority groups were at highest risk of DKA at diabetes diagnosis in most countries. A significantly higher risk was also found for females in Denmark, Germany and Slovenia. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: DKA prevalence at type 1 diabetes diagnosis varied considerably across countries, albeit it was generally high and showed a slight increase between 2006 and 2016. Increased awareness of symptoms to prevent delay in diagnosis is warranted, especially in preschool children, adolescents and children from ethnic minority groups.

Reduced burden of diabetes and improved quality of life: Experiences from unrestricted day-and-night hybrid closed-loop use in very young children with type 1 diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the experiences of families with very young children aged 1 to 7 years (inclusive) with type 1 diabetes using day-and-night hybrid closed-loop insulin delivery. METHODS: Parents/caregivers of 20 children aged 1 to 7 years with type 1 diabetes completed a closed-loop experience survey following two 3-week periods of unrestricted day-and-night hybrid closed-loop insulin therapy using Cambridge FlorenceM system at home. Benefits, limitations, and improvements of closed-loop technology were explored. RESULTS: Responders reported reduced burden of diabetes management, less time spent managing diabetes, and improved quality of sleep with closed-loop. Ninety percent of the responders felt less worried about their child's glucose control using closed-loop. Size of study devices, battery performance and connectivity issues were identified as areas for improvement. Parents/caregivers wished for more options to input information to the system such as temporary glucose targets. CONCLUSIONS: Parents/caregivers of very young children reported important quality of life benefits associated with using closed-loop, supporting adoption of this technology in this population.

Association of Insulin Pump Therapy vs Insulin Injection Therapy With Severe Hypoglycemia, Ketoacidosis, and Glycemic Control Among Children, Adolescents, and Young Adults With Type 1 Diabetes.

Importance: Insulin pump therapy may improve metabolic control in young patients with type 1 diabetes, but the association with short-term diabetes complications is unclear. Objective: To determine whether rates of severe hypoglycemia and diabetic ketoacidosis are lower with insulin pump therapy compared with insulin injection therapy in children, adolescents, and young adults with type 1 diabetes. Design, Setting, and Participants: Population-based cohort study conducted between January 2011 and December 2015 in 446 diabetes centers participating in the Diabetes Prospective Follow-up Initiative in Germany, Austria, and Luxembourg. Patients with type 1 diabetes younger than 20 years and diabetes duration of more than 1 year were identified. Propensity score matching and inverse probability of treatment weighting analyses with age, sex, diabetes duration, migration background (defined as place of birth outside of Germany or Austria), body mass index, and glycated hemoglobin as covariates were used to account for relevant confounders. Exposures: Type 1 diabetes treated with insulin pump therapy or with multiple (≥4) daily insulin injections. Main Outcomes and Measures: Primary outcomes were rates of severe hypoglycemia and diabetic ketoacidosis during the most recent treatment year. Secondary outcomes included glycated hemoglobin levels, insulin dose, and body mass index. Results: Of 30 579 patients (mean age, 14.1 years [SD, 4.0]; 53% male), 14 119 used pump therapy (median duration, 3.7 years) and 16 460 used insulin injections (median duration, 3.6 years). Patients using pump therapy (n = 9814) were matched with 9814 patients using injection therapy. Pump therapy, compared with injection therapy, was associated with lower rates of severe hypoglycemia (9.55 vs 13.97 per 100 patient-years; difference, -4.42 [95% CI, -6.15 to -2.69]; P < .001) and diabetic ketoacidosis (3.64 vs 4.26 per 100 patient-years; difference, -0.63 [95% CI, -1.24 to -0.02]; P = .04). Glycated hemoglobin levels were lower with pump therapy than with injection therapy (8.04% vs 8.22%; difference, -0.18 [95% CI, -0.22 to -0.13], P < .001). Total daily insulin doses were lower for pump therapy compared with injection therapy (0.84 U/kg vs 0.98 U/kg; difference, -0.14 [-0.15 to -0.13], P < .001). There was no significant difference in body mass index between both treatment regimens. Similar results were obtained after propensity score inverse probability of treatment weighting analyses in the entire cohort. Conclusions and Relevance: Among young patients with type 1 diabetes, insulin pump therapy, compared with insulin injection therapy, was associated with lower risks of severe hypoglycemia and diabetic ketoacidosis and with better glycemic control during the most recent year of therapy. These findings provide evidence for improved clinical outcomes associated with insulin pump therapy compared with injection therapy in children, adolescents, and young adults with type 1 diabetes.

Association of Achieving Time in Range Clinical Targets With Treatment Modality Among Youths With Type 1 Diabetes.

Importance: Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) devices have demonstrated efficacy in adults and more recently in youths and older adults with type 1 diabetes. In adults with type 1 diabetes, the use of real-time CGM compared with intermittently scanned CGM was associated with improved glycemic control, but there are limited data available for youths. Objective: To assess real-world data on achievement of time in range clinical targets associated with different treatment modalities in youths with type 1 diabetes. Design, Setting, and Participants: This multinational cohort study included children, adolescents, and young adults younger than 21 years (hereinafter referred to collectively as youths) with type 1 diabetes for a duration of at least 6 months who provided CGM data between January 1, 2016, and December 31, 2021. Participants were enrolled from the international Better Control in Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes: Working to Create Centers of Reference (SWEET) registry. Data from 21 countries were included. Participants were divided into 4 treatment modalities: intermittently scanned CGM with or without insulin pump use and real-time CGM with or without insulin pump use. Exposures: Type 1 diabetes and the use of CGM with or without an insulin pump. Main Outcomes and Measures: Proportion of individuals in each treatment modality group achieving recommended CGM clinical targets. Results: Among the 5219 participants (2714 [52.0%] male; median age, 14.4 [IQR, 11.2-17.1] years), median duration of diabetes was 5.2 (IQR, 2.7-8.7) years and median hemoglobin A1c level was 7.4% (IQR, 6.8%-8.0%). Treatment modality was associated with the proportion of individuals achieving recommended clinical targets. Adjusted for sex, age, diabetes duration, and body mass index standard deviation score, the proportion achieving the recommended greater than 70% time in range target was highest with real-time CGM plus insulin pump use (36.2% [95% CI, 33.9%-38.4%]), followed by real-time CGM plus injection use (20.9% [95% CI, 18.0%-24.1%]), intermittently scanned CGM plus injection use (12.5% [95% CI, 10.7%-14.4%]), and intermittently scanned CGM plus insulin pump use (11.3% [95% CI, 9.2%-13.8%]) (P < .001). Similar trends were observed for less than 25% time above (real-time CGM plus insulin pump, 32.5% [95% CI, 30.4%-34.7%]; intermittently scanned CGM plus insulin pump, 12.8% [95% CI, 10.6%-15.4%]; P < .001) and less than 4% time below range target (real-time CGM plus insulin pump, 73.1% [95% CI, 71.1%-75.0%]; intermittently scanned CGM plus insulin pump, 47.6% [95% CI, 44.1%-51.1%]; P < .001). Adjusted time in range was highest among real-time CGM plus insulin pump users (64.7% [95% CI, 62.6%-66.7%]). Treatment modality was associated with the proportion of participants experiencing severe hypoglycemia and diabetic ketoacidosis events. Conclusions and Relevance: In this multinational cohort study of youths with type 1 diabetes, concurrent use of real-time CGM and an insulin pump was associated with increased probability of achieving recommended clinical targets and time in range target as well as lower probability of severe adverse events compared with other treatment modalities.

Intermittent Scanning Glucose Monitoring or Predicted Low Suspend Pump Treatment: Does It Impact Time in Glucose Target and Treatment Preference? The QUEST Randomized Crossover Study.

Objective: To compare glycemic control and treatment preference in children with type 1 diabetes (T1D) using sensor augmented pump (SAP) with predictive low glucose suspend (SmartGuard®) or pump with independent intermittent scanning continuous glucose monitoring (iscCGM, Freestyle libre ®). Methods: In this open label, cross-over study, children 6 to 14 years of age, treated with insulin pump for at least 6 months, were randomized to insulin pump and iscCGM (A) or SAP with SmartGuard® (B) for 5 weeks followed by 5 additional weeks. The difference in percentages of time in glucose target (TIT), (3.9 - 8.0 mmol/l), <3 mmol/l, > 8 and 10 mmol/l, were analyzed using linear mixed models during the final week of each arm and were measured by blinded CGM (IPro2®). Results: 31 children (15 girls) finished the study. With sensor compliance > 60%, no difference in TIT was found, TIT: A 37.86%; 95% CI [33.21; 42.51]; B 37.20%; 95% CI [32.59; 41.82]; < 3 mmol/l A 2.27% 95% CI [0.71; 3.84] B 1.42% 95% CI [-0.13; 2.97]; > 8 mmol/l A 0.60% 95% CI [0.56, 0.67]; B 0.63% [0.56; 0.70]. One year after the study all participants were on CGM compared to 80.7% prior to the study, with a shift of 13/25 participants from iscCGM to SAP. Conclusions: In this study, no significant difference in glycemic control was found whether treated with SAP (SmartGuard®) or pump with iscCGM. The decision of all families to continue with CGM after the study suggests a positive impact, with preference for SmartGuard®. Clinical Trial Registration: [clinicaltrials.gov], identifier NCT03103867.

Parents' experiences of using a hybrid closed-loop system (CamAPS FX) to care for a very young child with type 1 diabetes: Qualitative study.

AIMS: To explore parents' experiences of using a hybrid closed-loop system (CamAPS FX) when caring for a very young child (aged 1-7 years) with type 1 diabetes. METHODS: Interviews with n = 33 parents of 30 children who used the system during a randomised controlled trial. Data analysis used a descriptive thematic approach. RESULTS: While some parents were initially reticent about handing control to the system, all reported clinical benefits to using the technology, having to do less diabetes-related work and needing less clinical input over time. Parents welcomed opportunities to enhance the system's efficacy (using Ease-off and Boost functions) as required. Parents described how the system's automated glucose control facilitated more normality, including sleeping better, worrying less about their child, and feeling more confident and able to outsource care. Parents also described more normality for the child (alongside better sleep, mood and concentration, and lessened distress) and siblings. Parents liked being able to administer insulin using a smartphone, but suggested refinements to device size and functionality. CONCLUSIONS: Using a hybrid closed-loop system in very young children can facilitate greater normality and may result in a lessened demand for health professionals' input. Systems may need to be customised for very young children.

Cambridge Hybrid Closed-Loop System in Very Young Children With Type 1 Diabetes Reduces Caregivers' Fear of Hypoglycemia and Improves Their Well-Being.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the impact of CamAPS FX hybrid closed-loop (HCL) automated insulin delivery in very young children with type 1 diabetes (T1D) on caregivers' well-being, fear of hypoglycemia, and sleepiness. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We conducted a multinational, open-label, randomized crossover study. Children (age 1-7 years) with T1D received treatment for two 4-month periods in random order, comparing HCL with sensor augmented pump (control). At baseline and after each treatment period, caregivers were invited to complete World Health Organization-Five Well-Being Index, Hypoglycemia Fear Survey, and Epworth Sleepiness Scale questionnaires. RESULTS: Caregivers of 74 children (mean ± SD age 5 ± 2 years and baseline HbA1c 7.3 ± 0.7%; 42% female) participated. Results revealed significantly lower scores for hypoglycemia fear (P < 0.001) and higher scores for well-being (P < 0.001) after HCL treatment. A trend toward a reduction in sleepiness score was observed (P = 0.09). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest better well-being and less hypoglycemia fear in caregivers of very young children with T1D on CamAPS FX HCL.

Psychological Well-Being of Parents of Very Young Children With Type 1 Diabetes - Baseline Assessment.

Background: Type 1 diabetes in young children is a heavy parental burden. As part of pilot phase of the KIDSAP01 study, we conducted a baseline assessment in parents to study the association between hypoglycemia fear, parental well-being and child behavior. Methods: All parents were invited to fill in baseline questionnaires: hypoglycemia fear survey (HFS), WHO-5, Epworth Sleepiness Scale and Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). Results: 24 children (median age: 5-year, range 1-7 years, 63% male, mean diabetes duration: 3 ± 1.7 years) participated. 23/24 parents filled out the questionnaires. We found a higher score for the hypoglycemia fear behavior 33.9 ± 5.6 compared to hypoglycemia worry 34.6 ± 12.2. Median WHO-5 score was 16 (8 - 22) with poor well-being in two parents. Median daytime sleepiness score was high in five parents (>10). For six children a high total behavioral difficulty score (>16) was reported. Pro social behavior score was lower than normal in six children (<6). Parental well-being was negatively associated with HFS total (r = - 0.50, p <.05) and subscale scores (r = - 0.44, p <.05 for HFS-Worry and HFS-Behavior), child behavior (r = - 0.45, p = .05) and positively with child age and diabetes duration (r = 0.58, p <.01, r = 0.6, p <.01). HFS, parental well-being nor daytime sleepiness are associated with the HbA1c. Conclusion: Regular screening of parental well-being, hypoglycemia fear and child behavior should be part of routine care to target early intervention.

Lower plasma insulin levels during overnight closed-loop in school children with type 1 diabetes: Potential advantage? A randomized cross-over trial.

BACKGROUND: Studies have shown that overnight closed-loop insulin delivery can improve glucose control and reduce the risk of hypoglycemia and hence may improve metabolic outcomes and reduce burden for children with type 1 diabetes and their families. However, research so far has not reported insulin levels while comparing closed-loop to open-loop insulin delivery in children. Therefore, in this study we obtained glucose levels as well as plasma insulin levels in children with type 1 diabetes to evaluate the efficacy of a model-based closed-loop algorithm compared to an open-loop administration. METHODS: Fifteen children with type 1 diabetes, 6-12 years, participated in this open-label single center study. We used a randomized cross over design in which we compared overnight closed-loop insulin delivery with sensor augmented pump therapy for two nights in both the hospital and at home (i.e., 1 night in-patient stay and at home per treatment condition). Only during the in-patient stay, hourly plasma insulin and blood glucose levels were assessed and are reported in this paper. RESULTS: Results of paired sample t-tests revealed that although plasma insulin levels were significantly lower during the closed-loop than in the open-loop (Mean difference 36.51 pmol/l; t(13) = 2.13, p = .03, effect size d = 0.57), blood glucose levels did not vary between conditions (mean difference 0.76 mmol/l; t(13) = 1.24, p = .12, d = 0.37). The administered dose of insulin was significantly lower during the closed-loop compared with the open-loop (mean difference 0.10 UI; t(12) = 2.45, p = .02, d = 0.68). CONCLUSIONS: Lower insulin doses were delivered in the closed-loop, resulting in lower plasma insulin levels, whereby glucose levels were not affected negatively. This suggests that the closed-loop administration is better targeted and hence could be more effective.

Screening for coeliac disease in 1624 mainly asymptomatic children with type 1 diabetes: is genotyping for coeliac-specific human leucocyte antigen the right approach?

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the frequency of coeliac disease (CD)-specific human leucocyte antigen (HLA) genotypes in paediatric patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D), who are known to have a higher prevalence of CD than the general population, and to evaluate whether HLA genotyping is a suitable first-line screening method for CD. STUDY DESIGN: The study was a multicentre observational analysis of patients with T1D aged <20 years of whom a subgroup had undergone HLA genotyping. Patient data were retrieved from the Diabetes Prospective Follow-up database, a large diabetes follow-up registry. The present analysis included data from 439 centres throughout Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Luxembourg. RESULTS: In March 2017, the database contained 75 202 patients with T1D (53% male, mean age (SD) 14.6 (4.1) years, mean age at diagnosis 8.8 (4.3) years and mean diabetes duration 5.8 (4.3) years). 1624 patients had undergone coeliac-specific HLA genotyping, of whom 1344 (82.8%) were positive for HLA-DQ2, HLA-DQ8 or both, while 17.2% had no coeliac-specific HLA-markers. 26.6% of at-risk patients had a clinical suspected diagnosis of CD, and 3.6% had biopsy-proven CD. CONCLUSIONS: Genotyping for HLA-DQ2, HLA-DQ8 or both is positive in the vast majority (>80%) of patients with T1D. Therefore, screening for coeliac-specific HLA genotypes as a first-line test is not a suitable method to exclude CD in T1D. Regular screening for coeliac-specific antibodies in T1D is still recommended.

Home Use of Day-and-Night Hybrid Closed-Loop Insulin Delivery in Very Young Children: A Multicenter, 3-Week, Randomized Trial.

OBJECTIVE: We aimed to assess the feasibility and safety of hybrid closed-loop insulin delivery in children with type 1 diabetes aged 1-7 years as well as evaluate the role of diluted insulin on glucose control. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: In an open-label, multicenter, multinational, randomized crossover study, 24 children with type 1 diabetes on insulin pump therapy (median age 5 years [interquartile range 3-6] and mean ± SD HbA1c 7.4 ± 0.7% [57 ± 8 mmol/mol] and total insulin 13.2 ± 4.8 units/day) underwent two 21-day periods of unrestricted living and we compared hybrid closed-loop with diluted insulin (U20) and hybrid closed-loop with standard strength insulin (U100) in random order. During both interventions, the Cambridge model predictive control algorithm was used. RESULTS: The proportion of time that sensor glucose was in the target range between 3.9 and 10 mmol/L (primary end point) was not different between interventions (mean ± SD 72 ± 8% vs. 70 ± 7% for closed-loop with diluted insulin vs. closed-loop with standard insulin, respectively; P = 0.16). There was no difference in mean glucose levels (8.0 ± 0.8 vs. 8.2 ± 0.6 mmol/L; P = 0.14), glucose variability (SD of sensor glucose 3.1 ± 0.5 vs. 3.2 ± 0.4 mmol/L; P = 0.16), or the proportion of time spent with sensor glucose <3.9 mmol/L (4.5 ± 1.7% vs. 4.7 ± 1.4%; P = 0.47) or <2.8 mmol/L (0.6 ± 0.5% vs. 0.6 ± 0.4%; P > 0.99). Total daily insulin delivery did not differ (17.3 ± 5.6 vs. 18.9 ± 6.9 units/day; P = 0.07). No closed-loop-related severe hypoglycemia or ketoacidosis occurred. CONCLUSIONS: Unrestricted home use of day-and-night closed-loop in very young children with type 1 diabetes is feasible and safe. The use of diluted insulin during closed-loop does not provide additional benefits compared with standard strength insulin.

Effect of predicted low suspend pump treatment on improving glycaemic control and quality of sleep in children with type 1 diabetes and their caregivers: the QUEST randomized crossover study.

BACKGROUND: In attempting to achieve optimal metabolic control, the day-to-day management is challenging for a child with type 1 diabetes (T1D) and his family and can have a major negative impact on their quality of life. Augmenting an insulin pump with glucose sensor information leads to improved outcomes: decreased haemoglobin A1c levels, increased time in glucose target and less hypoglycaemia. Fear of nocturnal hypoglycaemia remains pervasive amongst parents, leading to chronic sleep interruption and lack of sleep for the parents and their children. The QUEST study, an open-label, single-centre randomized crossover study, aims to evaluate the impact on time in target, in hypoglycaemia and hyperglycaemia and the effect on sleep and quality of life in children with T1D, comparing a sensor-augmented pump (SAP) with predictive low glucose suspend and alerts to the use of the same insulin pump with a flash glucose measurement (FGM) device not interacting with the pump. METHODS/DESIGN: Subjects meeting the inclusion criteria are randomized to treatment with the SAP or treatment with an insulin pump and independent FGM for 5 weeks. Following a 3-week washout period, the subjects cross over to the other study arm for 5 weeks. During the week before and in the last week of treatment, the subjects and one of their caregivers wear a sleep monitor in order to obtain sleep data. The primary endpoint is the between-arm difference in percentage of time in glucose target during the final 6 days of each treatment arm, measured by a blinded continuous glucose measurement (CGM). Additional endpoints include comparison of quantity and quality of sleep as well as quality of life perception of the subjects and one of their caregivers in the two different treatment arms. Recruitment started in February 2017. A total of 36 patients are planned to be randomized. The study recruitment was completed in April 2018. DISCUSSION: With this study we will provide more information on whether insulin pump treatment combined with more technology (SmartGuard® feature and alerts) leads to better metabolic control. The inclusion of indicators on quality of sleep with less sleep interruption, less lack of sleep and perception of quality of life in both children and their primary caregivers is essential for this study and might help to guide us to further treatment improvement. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03103867 . Registered on 6 April 2017.

Can health indicators and psychosocial characteristics predict attrition in youths with overweight and obesity seeking ambulatory treatment? Data from a retrospective longitudinal study in a paediatric clinic in Luxembourg.

OBJECTIVES: The current study aimed to identify factors that could predict attrition in youths starting ambulatory treatment to control or lose weight. DESIGN: Retrospective longitudinal study. SETTING: Paediatric clinic: ambulatory treatment programme. PATIENTS AND MEASURES: A youth sample (n=191; 89 boys; aged 7-17 years) completed measures of demographic characteristics, and health and psychosocial traits before starting an ambulatory weight management programme. Anthropometric and biological markers related to obesity were also obtained. Tests of mean differences and regression analyses were used to investigate the relationship between these variables and attrition after 1 year. RESULTS: The χ2and t test results showed both psychosocial and health indicators differentiated between participants who continued attending the treatment programme and those who dropped out. More specifically, youths that dropped out of treatment were significantly older, had higher body mass index z scores, higher levels of insulin, triglycerides and HOMA-IR, reported poorer health, had more conduct problems and were more dissatisfied with themselves and their bodies before starting treatment. Results of regression analyses revealed that weight status (anthropometric and biological markers), age and body dissatisfaction predicted attrition (overall prediction success 73%; prediction success for continued attendance 90/91%; prediction success for dropouts 42/44%). CONCLUSION: Attrition, but especially the continued attendance in treatment, can be successfully predicted by age, weight status and body dissatisfaction. For patients who present with one or more risk factors, careful consideration is needed to decide which (combination of) inpatient or outpatient programme may facilitate prolonged engagement of the patient and hence may be most effective in establishing weight loss.

A novel GATA6 mutation in a child with congenital heart malformation and neonatal diabetes.

KEY CLINICAL MESSAGE: Diabetes in neonates is a monogenetic disease and genetic analysis is warranted to allow best treatment, prognosis, and genetic counseling. Transcription factor mutations may have a variable expression and different organs may be involved.