Are FADs a significant source of marine litter? Assessment of released debris and mitigation strategy in the Mediterranean sea.

A poorly known form of marine litter known as Abandoned, Lost or otherwise Discarded Fishing (ALDFG) derives from fishing activities using FADs (Fish Aggregating Devices). In the Mediterranean Sea, this activity is widespread in southern Italy, Tunisia, Malta and Majorca (Spain). The way of constructing FADs, from a functional point of view, is very similar throughout the Mediterranean and consists mainly of the use of different materials for the floats and for the cables and blocks for anchoring. Every year, for at least 30 years, about 60,000 FADs have been placed at sea and in most cases are not recovered. In this study, through analysis of the scientific and grey literature, a historical reconstruction of the use of FADs in the Mediterranean Sea was made, including their spatial distribution, the number of objects and the materials used to build the devices. It has been estimated that approximately 1.6 million FADs were abandoned in the Mediterranean Sea between 1961 and 2017. The largest fishing areas are off Malta (34,465 km2) and Tunisia (23,033 km2). The greatest numbers of abandoned plastic sheets (452,742) and concrete blocks (905,483) were estimated to be around Tunisia, while the greatest amount, in terms of length, of polyethylene cable (399,423 km) was estimated to be around Sicily. About 30% of FADs used all over the world are used in the Mediterranean and are only of the anchored type (corresponding to about 90% of those anchored used worldwide). The legislation on the use of Mediterranean FADs is still poor and does not address environmental issues. An analysis of the possible environmental impacts of the FAD litter was made. Overall, reducing the number of FADs and introducing new types of FADs equipped with specific technological systems appear to be the most suitable strategies to mitigate the impact of FADs on the environment and resources, as well as measures and incentives to involve fishermen in their better management.

Ocean acidification affects fish spawning but not paternity at CO2 seeps.

Fish exhibit impaired sensory function and altered behaviour at levels of ocean acidification expected to occur owing to anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions during this century. We provide the first evidence of the effects of ocean acidification on reproductive behaviour of fish in the wild. Satellite and sneaker male ocellated wrasse (Symphodus ocellatus) compete to fertilize eggs guarded by dominant nesting males. Key mating behaviours such as dominant male courtship and nest defence did not differ between sites with ambient versus elevated CO2 concentrations. Dominant males did, however, experience significantly lower rates of pair spawning at elevated CO2 levels. Despite the higher risk of sperm competition found at elevated CO2, we also found a trend of lower satellite and sneaker male paternity at elevated CO2 Given the importance of fish for food security and ecosystem stability, this study highlights the need for targeted research into the effects of rising CO2 levels on patterns of reproduction in wild fish.

Spatial distribution of the range-expanding species Seriola fasciata (Bloch, 1793) in Mediterranean Sea: From past to future.

The Mediterranean Sea is a highly susceptible area to climate change, that facilitates the introduction of warm-affinity exotic species, contributing to the expansion of their biogeographical range. One such thermophilic species is the Atlantic fish Seriola fasciata, which has colonised this area over the past three decades. The present study analyzed its spatial distribution in the Mediterranean Sea to identify aggregation areas and dynamics over time, and the environmental predictors influencing its presence. The utilized statistical tools and the Species Distribution Model proved effective in identifying specific spatial and temporal distribution patterns, as well as discerning some environmental variables influencing the species presence, with distinctions recorded between juveniles and adults. S. fasciata was observed to be established in the central Mediterranean, with Fishing Aggregating Devices potentially influencing its presence, particularly of juveniles. Sea floor temperature and habitats emerged as the primary factors driving species distribution. An aggregation area in the Levant Sea, conducive mainly for the adults, was identified and is expected to intensify over time. These findings contribute valuable insights into a relatively understudied species and its presence in the Mediterranean Sea, where climate change is affecting marine biodiversity.

Reproductive cycle and gonadal output of the Lessepsian jellyfish Cassiopea andromeda in NW Sicily (Central Mediterranean Sea).

Knowledge of the reproductive strategy is a key prerequisite to predict population dynamics and potential invasiveness of both native and non-indigenous outbreak-forming species. In 2014 the Lessepsian upside-down jellyfish Cassiopea andromeda reached the harbor of Palermo (NW Sicily, Thyrrenian Sea), to date its established westernmost outpost in the Mediterranean Sea. To predict C. andromeda reproductive success in its novel habitat, gonad histology was carried out to record the number and size of mature and immature oocytes. Both male and female simultaneously presented gametes at all stages of development suggesting an asynchronous, yet apparently continuous, reproduction strategy. Indeed, oogenesis was observed throughout the year from pre-vitellogenic, vitellogenetic, and late-vitellogenetic to mature oocytes suggesting multiple reproductive events, as known in other Mediterranean Rhizostomeae. Oocytes were found from May to December, with two seasonal peaks of abundance (late spring = 392 and autumn = 272), suggesting imminent spawning events. Further, jellyfish size varied significantly throughout the year, with maximum diameter (up to 24 cm) in summer, and minimum diameter (6 cm) in winter. Small-sized jellyfish in winter belong to the new cohort, most probably arising from intense summer strobilation of polyps. Late spring fertilization, planula development, and metamorphosis, followed by polyp strobilation in the summer months, may explain the late appearance of a new jellyfish cohort, likely coincident with that recorded throughout winter.

How Rare Are Argonautoidea Octopuses in the Mediterranean? New Data from Stranding Events, Stomach Contents and Genetics.

The present paper represents the first all-encompassing study on all Mediterranean holopelagic octopods belonging to Argonautoidea (Argonauta argo, Ocythoe tuberculata, Tremoctopus gracilis, Tremoctopus violaceus). Argonautoidea octopuses were collected by different sampling methods in the Strait of Messina and southern Tyrrhenian Sea. The aim of this paper was to improve knowledge, using information from different data sources, such as the study of stranded individuals or accidental caught specimens, as well as the analysis of stomach content of large pelagic fishes. Moreover, we investigated their taxonomic profile through the amplification of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI). Overall, 47 fresh holopelagic octopods were collected, including valuable records of rare males. Moreover, 330 Argonautoidea octopuses were found in the stomachs of 800 predators. The results provided evidence that these cephalopods are more abundant than thought in the past. The molecular approach supported the ecological results with interesting insights. The similarity-based identifications and tree-based methods indicated that three females could be identified as Tremoctopus violaceus in agreement with their morphological classifications. The sequences obtained from the two T. gracilis individuals were clustered with the sequences of Tremoctopus violaceus from the Gulf of Mexico and were differentiated from the sequences attributed to T. gracilis and T. robsoni. The study represents a valuable contribution to the genetic characterization of Mediterranean individuals of the genera Tremoctopus, Argonauta and Ocythoe.

Measurement of the Growth of the Main Commercial Rays (Raja clavata, Raja brachyura, Torpedo marmorata, Dipturus oxyrinchus) in European Waters Using Intercalibration Methods.

The intercalibration of age readings represents a crucial step in the ageing procedure; the use of different sampling methods, structures, preparation techniques, and ageing criteria can significantly affect age and growth data. This study evaluated the precision and accuracy of ageing for the most important North Atlantic (NA) and Mediterranean (M) ray species, Raja clavata, Raja brachyura, Torpedo marmorata, and Dipturus oxyrinchus, through exchange exercises carried out by readers from different laboratories. In addition, growth parameters were estimated from the obtained data. A total of 663 individual batoids were analysed. R. clavata and R. brachyura samples were obtained from both the NA and the M, while vertebral centra of T. marmorata and D. oxyrinchus were only available for the M. High reading variability was observed for all four evaluated species in terms of CV, APE, and PA. D. oxyrinchus and T. marmorata showed relatively slow growth and the von Bertalanffy model with fixed t0 and Gompertz's model were, respectively, the most precise models for each of these species. In R. brachyura, females had a faster growth rate compared to combined sexes. The vbt0p proved the most precise model for describing growth in this species, and no statistical differences were found between the NO and the M. For R. clavata, the best-fitting model was the vbt0p for females and males in the NO and for females from the M, while the best-fitting model for males from the M and sexes combined for both areas was log.p. Distinct growth patterns were observed between the two study areas.

Large-Scale Distribution of the European Seahorses (Hippocampus Rafinesque, 1810): A Systematic Review.

Human pressures on marine ecosystems have caused extensive degradation of marine habitats and several local extinctions. Overexploitation and destructive fishing practices are responsible for biodiversity loss in many coastal ecosystems. The definition of conservation programs in marine fish requires comprehensive knowledge on large-scale geographical distribution, while considering distribution/abundance patterns in relation to key environmental variables. Due to their life-cycle traits, the two European seahorses (Hippocampus guttulatus and H. hippocampus), as with other congeneric species, are particularly sensitive to the effects of anthropogenic activities and habitat changes. However, information on the ecological distribution of these two species is scattered, patchy, and mainly focused on small-scale studies. In this paper, we followed an international standard protocol for systematic reviews (the PRISMA protocol) to provide a detailed assessment of the two species' geographical distribution in relation to the environmental characteristics. According to the 134 analyzed studies, Hippocampus guttulatus is more common in confined areas, while H. hippocampus is found in marine shelf waters. With several interspecific differences, seagrasses were the most used holdfasts of both species. The EUNIS codes (European nature information system) referring to a specific and unique habitat were discussed as a potential tool for defining the ecological distribution of the two species. The obtained results and their future implementation could help plan conservation actions.

Snapshot of the Distribution and Biology of Alien Jellyfish Cassiopea andromeda (Forsskål, 1775) in a Mediterranean Touristic Harbour.

Harbors are hotspots for the introduction of alien species, and, usually, investigations on their host populations help fill the knowledge gap in their pathways of invasion and in their impacts on marine biodiversity and ecosystems. In 2014, the upside-down alien jellyfish Cassiopea andromeda invaded a Mediterranean touristic harbor ("Cala"), and its abundance has since increased over time. In the present study, the distribution and trophic behavior of C. andromeda in Cala were investigated for the years 2017-2018 through visual sampling, and GIS-based statistical and stable isotope analyses. Since Cala is a hard-to-reach area (with many anchor cables and boats), Megabenthos Underwater Video was used to count the number and estimate the size of jellyfishes. The variations in size throughout the study period suggest that the population of C. andromeda is quite established in Cala at depths lower than 7.5 m. The ranges of the environmental parameters recorded (temperature, salinity, and transparency) were consistent with the ideal conditions for maintaining a Cassiopea population, but they did not seem to influence aggregation. Additionally, the carbon and nitrogen isotopic signatures studied highlight the mixotrophic behavior of this species. These preliminary results confirm the capacity of C. andromeda to live and reproduce in heavily anthropized areas.

The impact of marine litter from fish aggregation devices on vulnerable marine benthic habitats of the central Mediterranean Sea.

The aim of this research was to assess marine litter abundance and its effects on the benthic fauna in an area of the central Mediterranean Sea exploited by fisheries using fish aggregating devices (FAD). The study was carried out by means of a remotely-operated vehicle (ROV). Derelict fishing gear, mainly FAD ropes, represented the main source of marine debris, contributing 96.2% to the overall litter. About 47% of debris items (mostly FAD ropes) entangled colonies of the protected black coral Leiopathes glaberrima. The results of this research will assist in the monitoring of "impact/harm" to the coral and other benthic communities, as recommended by the Marine Strategy Framework Directive and by the Integrated Monitoring and Assessment Programme. Preventive and mitigation measures (i.e., biodegradable fishing gear, onboard technology to locate and retrieve gear, reception and/or payment for old/retrieved gear, and introduction of no-take zones) to reduce the problem are discussed.

Extensive use of Fish Aggregating Devices together with environmental change influenced the spatial distribution of a tropical affinity fish.

Since the early 1990s of last century the spread of Caranx crysos a thermophilic fish species in the Mediterranean Sea has increased due to sea warming. Simultaneously, a large and unregulated use of fish aggregating devices has been recorded, and these devices seem to influence fish spatial distributions. Here we used a multidisciplinary approach to investigate the influence of environmental change and FAD presence on the spatial distribution of the tropical affinity fish species Caranx crysos across the Mediterranean Sea. Data suggested that the presence of C. crysos has increased progressively since 1990 towards the northwest side of the Mediterranean Sea, with the greatest number of recent findings occurring in zones with higher densities of FADs. The spatial distribution models show how the extensive use of FADs in combination with changes in environmental conditions may have indirectly facilitated the spread of the thermophillic C. crysos population across the Mediterranean Sea.

Composition and abundance of benthic marine litter in a coastal area of the central Mediterranean Sea.

Abundance and qualitative composition of benthic marine litter were investigated in a coastal area of the central Mediterranean Sea. Almost 30 km of video footage, collected by a Remotely Operated Vehicle between 5 and 30 m depth, were analyzed. Litter density ranged from 0 to 0.64 items/m2 with a mean of 0.11 (±0.16) items/m2. General wastes, made up almost entirely of plastic objects, were the dominant sources of debris representing 68% of the overall litter. The remaining 32% consisted of lost or abandoned fishing gears. Synthetic polymers, considering both fishing gears and general waste, represented 73% of total debris items. Our results are comparable with litter amounts reported in other Mediterranean sites at similar depths. Overall, the results are discussed in terms of monitoring strategy, to support the implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC) for descriptor 10 and the Mediterranean UN Environment (UNEP/MAP) regional Plan on Marine Litter.

Marine litter in an EBSA (Ecologically or Biologically Significant Area) of the central Mediterranean Sea: Abundance, composition, impact on benthic species and basis for monitoring entanglement.

Marine litter is commonly observed everywhere in the ocean. In this study, we analyzed 17 km of video footage, collected by a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) at depths ranging between 20 and 220 m, during 19 transects performed on the rocky banks of the Straits of Sicily. Recently, the Contracting Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) recognized this site as an Ecologically or Biologically Significant Area (EBSA). The research aim was to quantify the abundance of marine litter and its impact on benthic fauna. Litter density ranged from 0 items/100 m2 to 14.02 items/100 m2 with a mean (±standard error) of 2.13 (±0.84) items/100 m2. The observed average density was higher (5.2 items/100 m2) at depths >100 m than at shallower depths (<100 m, 0.71 items/100 m2). Lost or abandoned fishing lines contributed to 98.07% of the overall litter density, then representing the dominant source of marine debris. Litter interactions with fauna were frequently observed, with 30% of litter causing "entanglement/coverage" and 15% causing damage to sessile fauna. A total of 16 species showed interaction (entanglement/coverage or damage) with litter items and 12 of these are species of conservation concern according to international directives and agreements (CITES, Berne Convention, Habitat Directive, SPA/BD Protocol, IUCN Red List); we also observed 7 priority habitats of the SPA/BD Protocol. This research will support the implementation of monitoring "Harm" as recommended by the UN Environment/MAP Regional Plan on Marine Litter Management in the Mediterranean, and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). The institution of a SPAMI in the investigated area could represent a good management action for the protection of this hotspot of biodiversity and to achieve a Good Environmental Status (GES) for the marine environment by 2020, under the MSFD.

Caulerpa cylindracea Sonder invasion modifies trophic niche in infralittoral rocky benthic community.

The Mediterranean basin is one of the most invaded seas of the world. Invasive species have affected coastal benthic communities inducing structural changes. Since first reports, in the early 90s, Caulerpa cylindracea is considered one of the most important invasive event in the Mediterranean Sea where it has invaded large areas of soft bottoms, seagrass meadows and rocky shores. To assess effects of C. cylindracea in rocky ecosystems, benthic food webs have been compared between invaded and non-invaded coastal conditions through stable isotopes analyses. In addition, the convex hull area of the two types of conditions has been calculated as a proxy for the total extent of trophic diversity within each food web. Results have shown that the trophic niche width is at least 1.4 times wider in invaded conditions than in non-invaded conditions. In addition, this study gives further evidence of similar feeding analogies between the invasive herbivore fish, Siganus luridus and native herbivore fish Sparisoma cretense as both are feeding at the same isotopic level. This investigation provides with new scientific data to assess bionvasions in invaded and non-invaded conditions at assemblage level in coastal systems.

Influence of fish aggregating devices (FADs) on anti-predator behaviour within experimental mesocosms.

Commercial fishers have used fish aggregating devices throughout the Mediterranean Sea for over 40 years. These devices attract numerous predatory and forage species in both coastal and offshore environments. This study examined the influence of fish aggregating devices on schooling and aggregating behaviour by small forage fish in quasi-natural mesocosms. Anti-predator behaviour was evaluated for juvenile Caranx crysos under a variety of treatment conditions. Results suggest that, in the absence of physical structure, C. crysos first respond to a predatory threat by forming a school. When a physical structure is present, however, C. crysos show an occasional tendency to aggregate near the structure. These results suggest that a threatened prey species can change their defensive strategy against predatory behaviour. Further examination is required to explain if fish aggregating devices can increase survival rates of post-larval and juvenile prey species in the southern Mediterranean Sea. Management agencies should consider the relationship between the use of fish aggregating devices by commercial fisheries and the potential influence such devices possess on population dynamics of aggregating fish species.