Prevalence and sport-related predictors of disturbed eating attitudes and behaviors: Moderating effects of sex and age.

Very few studies examined the prevalence and sport-related predictors of disturbed eating attitudes and behaviors (DEABs) among adolescents involved in sport practice, and their results are mixed and inconclusive. These inconsistencies are most likely due to their methodological heterogeneity and to the fact that none of these studies took into consideration the potentially relevant characteristics of the sport practice context. This study attempts to answer this limitation among French adolescents not involved or involved in various sports contexts defined based on their organization, leanness-centration, and competitive level. Participants were 335 adolescents involved in sport practice, and 435 adolescents not involved in any form of regular sport practice. The DEABs were measured using the Eating Attitudes Test-26. Global results do not showed any significant association between the status of the participants and DEAB. However, these results drastically changed when we considered the potential moderating role of sex and age on these relations. Indeed, sports involvement in general, and involvement in leanness and competitive sports were found to exert sex- and age-differentiated effects on the risks of presenting clinically significant levels of DEAB. This study suggests the importance of monitoring, preventive, and early intervention mechanisms within the context of practice, particularly for adolescent girls.

Prevalence of eating disorders symptoms in nonelite ballet dancers and basketball players: An exploratory and controlled study among French adolescent girls.

BACKGROUND: Until recently, very few controlled studies have examined the prevalence of eating disorders (ED) symptoms among nonelite adolescent female athletes. Moreover, results are mixed and inconclusive. Therefore, the aim of this exploratory study was to examine the prevalence of ED symptoms (underweight, bulimia, drive for thinness, body dissatisfaction) among French nonelite adolescent female athletes (ballet dancers and basketball players) and nonathletes. METHOD: The sample of adolescent girls (aged between 12 and 16 years), consisted of 43 basketball players, 52 ballet dancers and 49 nonathlete controls. The eating disorder inventory and a demographic-personal information questionnaire (date of birth, experience of ED, week training time, etc.) were filled out by the participants. Additionally, all participants were measured and weighed. The frequencies of ED symptoms were compared between the groups (athletes versus nonathletes, ballet dancers versus basketball players) using a series of χ² tests. RESULTS: The χ² tests did not show significant differences in frequencies of underweight and body dissatisfaction symptoms between nonelite athletes and nonathletes. However, results highlighted a nonsignificant trend toward higher frequency of: (i) drive for thinness (P=0.05) symptoms in nonelite athletes compared with nonathletes, and (ii) bulimia (P=0.06) symptoms in nonathletes compared with nonelite athletes. Additional analyses performed among the sport groups revealed that the prevalence of drive for thinness symptoms was significantly two-fold higher in ballet dancers than basketball players (34.6% versus 16.3%). Nevertheless, no significant differences were found in the frequencies of underweight, bulimia and body dissatisfaction symptoms among the sport groups. CONCLUSION: This study showed that the frequency of ED symptoms is equivalent in nonelite athletes and nonathletes. However, these nonsignificant results should be interpreted with caution regarding the weak statistical power of the analyses and the small sample size. Detailed analysis revealed a significantly higher prevalence of drive for thinness symptoms in ballet dancers in comparison with basketball players. Consequently, these results should be viewed as preliminary and further studies are needed before they can be generalized to French adolescent female athletes.

[Confirmative study of a French version of the Exercise Dependence Scale-revised with a French population]. / Etude confirmative de l'échelle de dépendance à l'activité physique Exercise Dependence Scale-Revised pour une population francophone.

INTRODUCTION: Since the first writings on excessive exercise, there has been an increased interest in exercise dependence. One of the major consequences of this increased interest has been the development of several definitions and measures of exercise dependence. The work of Veale [Does primary exercise dependence really exist? In: Annet J, Cripps B, Steinberg H, editors. Exercise addiction: Motivation for participation in sport and exercise.Leicester, UK: Br Psychol Soc; 1995. p. 1-5.] provides an advance for the definition and measure of exercise dependence. BACKGROUND: These studies have adapted the DSM-IV criteria for substance dependence to measure exercise dependence. The Exercise Dependence Scale-Revised is based on these diagnostic criteria, which are: tolerance; withdrawal effects; intention effect; lack of control; time; reductions in other activities; continuance. Confirmatory factor analyses of EDS-R provided support to present a measurement model (21 items loaded in seven factors) of EDS-R (Comparative Fit Index=0.97; Root mean Square Error of Approximation=0.05; Tucker-Lewis Index=0.96). AIM OF THE STUDY: The aim of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of a French version of the EDS-R [Factorial validity and psychometric examination of the exercise dependence scale-revised. Meas Phys Educ Exerc Sci 2004;8(4):183-201.] to test the stability of the seven-factor model of the original version with a French population. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 516 half-marathoners ranged in age from 17 to 74 years old (Mean age=39.02 years, ET=10.64), with 402 men (77.9%) and 114 women (22.1%) participated in the study. RESULTS: The principal component analysis results in a six-factor structure, which accounts for 68.60% of the total variance. Because principal component analysis presents a six-factor structure differing from the original seven-factor structure, two models were tested, using confirmatory factor analysis. The first model is the seven-factor model of the original version of the EDS-R and the second is the model produced by the principal component analysis. The results of confirmatory factor analysis presented the original model (with a seven-factor structure) as a good model and fit indices were good (X(2)/ddl=2.89, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA)=0.061, Expected Cross Validation Index (ECVI)=1.20, Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI)=0.92, Comparative Fit Index (CFI)=0.94, Standardized Root Mean Square (SRMS)=0.048). These results showed that the French version of EDS-R has an identical factor structure to the original. Therefore, the French version of EDS-R was an acceptable scale to measure exercise dependence and can be used on a French population.

[Validation study of the implicit theories of intelligence scale]. / Validité factorielle d'un questionnaire mesurant les théories implicites de l'intelligence (TIDI).

BACKGROUND: According to several authors, it seems that beliefs about the nature of intelligence have a very powerful impact on behavior in learning situations. These implicit theories of intelligence create a meaning system or conceptual framework that influences the individuals interpretation of school situations. Thus, an entity theory of intelligence is the belief that intelligence is a fixed trait, a personal quality that cannot be changed. Students who subscribe to this theory believe that although people can learn new things, their underlying intelligence remains the same. In contrast, an incremental theory of intelligence is the belief that intelligence is a malleable quality that can increase through efforts. This paper presents the development and the validation of the Implicit Theories Of Intelligence scale (TIDI) for French teenagers. Most of the studies attest the validity of the scales measuring the implicit theories of the intelligence. The instrument used by the authors include 3 items assessing the entity theory. Recently, theoretical debates suggested to measure within a single questionnaire both theories at the same time. Moreover, there is no instrument in French language which measures the implicit theories of the intelligence. Two studies have been conducted. The purpose of the first study was to test the factorial validity and the internal consistency of the scale. The goal of the second study was to test the temporal stability of the instrument. STUDY 1: This study describes the procedures used to create the TIDI, the internal consistency and the factorial validity. This instrument was composed of two subscales of three items assessing incremental theory of the intelligence and entity theory of the intelligence. French teenagers (n=453) aged 11 to 16 years completed the questionnaire during a lecture. Cronbach's alpha was 0.81 for the scale assessing incremental theory and 0.78 for the scale assessing entity theory. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted using Lisrel. The fit for this model was: chi2 (8)=24.23, p<0.01, GFI=0.98, CFI=0.98, RMSEA=0.067, AGFI=0.95. All indexes of fit improved. An examination of the output indicated that the range of factor loadings of items on their respective scales was 0.66 to 0.82. These statistical analyses reveal that the TIDI shows an excellent internal consistency and a very good validity. STUDY 2: This second study examines the temporal stability of the TIDI. The sample includes 209 French teenagers aged 11 to 16 years who completed the questionnaire and participated at the second administration of the questionnaire, three months later. The stability coefficient for entity theory was 0.74 and for incremental theory was 0.70. These results indicate that the TIDI is stable over time, thus supporting its temporal stability. CONCLUSION: The overall results presented in these studies confirm the excellent psychometric properties of the TIDI. These studies also attest that a teenager can subscribe in a simultaneous way to both implicit theories of intelligence. Although a theory is dominant, the opposite theory can be available according to the context. From a theoretical point of view, this questionnaire could be used within correlational studies in order to study the correlation between the implicit theories and the psychopathological variables such as anxiety and depression. From a pragmatic point of view, this questionnaire can be used for the treatment of children with learning disabilities.

Psychological changes during altitude hypoxia.

We examined the effects of altitude hypoxia on the subject's cognitive functions and psychological state. Two assessment approaches were used, a cognitive-motor task and a structured interview. An experimental group of six subjects was tested three times: once under conditions of normoxia, once 8-20 h after a rapid climb to an altitude of 4383 m, and once 48-60 h after ascent to that altitude. A comparison of the experimental group's performance on the cognitive-motor task with that of a control group showed a difference on the second administration: the experimental group's performance did not improve, whereas the control group's performance did. This difference recovered on the third administration. A comparison of the subjects' verbalizations during the three interviews showed that they experienced a strong crisis during the first period at altitude, which improved partially during the second period. Evidence for use of certain defense mechanisms, e.g. self-concern, was found 8-20 h after ascent; both dependent measures were adversely affected. These measures recovered after 48-60 h.

Effects of different stay durations on attentional performance during two mountain expeditions.

BACKGROUND: Hypoxia-induced deficits in intellectual performance are linked to the altitude level reached, the speed of the ascent and the time spent at high altitude. This study analyzes attentional changes during adaptation to two different types of stay at high altitude on two different expeditions: one involving a 16-d trip between 2,000 m and 5,600 m, followed by a 2-d ascent to 6,440 m and back again; the other, a 21-d stay at 6,542 m. We tested the hypothesis that, at similar high altitudes, decrements in attentional performance would only occur during a long duration stay. METHODS: Indexes for attentional performance were calculated for two experimental groups under normoxia before the climb, under acute and chronic hypoxia during the climb, and under normoxia after the climb. They were compared for two control groups tested only under normoxia. RESULTS: The altitude stay was found to have an effect on the 6,542 m group when compared with the controls. Group performance differed at 2 d and 21 d after their arrival at 6,542 m and after their return to normoxia. When all the test administrations were pooled together for this expedition we noted an interaction between the level of difficulty of the task and the experimental and control groups: namely the difference between the groups was greater for the difficult task than it was for the easy task. No effect was found for the other expedition (at 5,600 m) when the group tested was compared with the controls. CONCLUSION: For a 21-d stay at an altitude of 6,542 m with the same ascent protocol as a group climbing to a lower altitude (16 d between 2,000 m and 5,600 m followed by a 2 d ascent to 6,440 m and back again), subjects appeared to suffer from attentional performance deficits which persisted for several days after the subjects returned to normoxic conditions.

Development of complex motor skills in psychotic children.

This article describes the study of the concurrent complex mechanisms which take place during behavioral changes in psychotic children and adolescents when they are asked to learn a motor task, in this case, to practise the sport of judo. Complex motor skills can be acquired by the psychotic subject insofar as the proposed physical activity is isomorphous with the psychosis. The different stages of development are marked by different levels structuring interpersonal space. The examination treats the linking processes between psychic mechanisms and motor behavior from a developmental perspective.

Criteria for psychological adaptation to high-altitude hypoxia.

The purpose of this study was to test an ascent program for ideal psychological adaptation to high altitudes. A psychological approach was used to test a model describing a gradual step-by-step ascent. Seven subjects spent nine days between 3,500 m and 4,400 m altitude, followed by eight days climbing 500 m each day from 3,500 m to 5,400 m. They performed a cognitive-motor task three times, once under normoxia, once under acute hypoxia, and once under chronic hypoxic conditions. Durations for these subjects were compared with those obtained by a control group tested under normoxia. Subjects' emotional state was assessed by analyzing their remarks during an interview conducted at 5,400 m and by calculating from the answers given to the three questions, a mood index for each subject. Analysis showed that the performances of both groups improved on the second and third administrations of the test. There was, however, no interaction between the group and the time of administration. Mood indexes indicated that the majority of the subjects had no trouble in adapting to the situation and few cognitive or emotional disturbances were observed. These findings may be attributed to the ascent being well designed and planned thereby preventing various possible forms of mountain sickness and other pathologies from developing in the subjects.

Color discrimination under chronic hypoxic conditions (simulated climb "Everest-Comex 97").

Hypoxia is known to alter visual functions. In the present study, the effects of chronic hypobaric hypoxia upon visual color discrimination were studied in 8 subjects participating in a simulated climb from sea level (PO2 = 210 hPa) to 8,848 m (PO2 = 70 hPa) over a 31-day period of confinement in a decompression chamber ('Everst-Comex 97'). During these investigations, the subjects were required to discriminate between colors of different hue in the red, blue, and green ranges. Alterations in color discrimination increased slightly but significantly as altitude increased. Impairments occurred mainly in the red and blue ranges. In addition, our results further indicate that color discrimination would be affected only when a minimum threshold of difference between color stimuli is not present. Methodological and physiological implications are discussed.

[Training in motor skills and psychopathology. Climbing with psychotic children]. / Apprentissages moteurs et psychopathologie. Pratique de l'escalade chez l'enfant psychotique.

The author investigates learning skills in psychotic and borderline children through the physical activity of climbing. Motor skills are considered as an interaction between the subject and his/her environment. Motor learning skills have been studied throughout 6 training sessions in rock-climbing. Etho-clinical methods of investigation allow to assess behaviors and the meaning given by the subject to different forms of action. The author emphasizes here the pleasure/anxiety dimensions of this activity. Results show remarkable learning skills in these children. Significant increase in motor activity and in the height reached point to an obvious integrity of the mechanisms necessary to motor acquisitions. These results are closely linked with the characteristics of rock climbing, a sport involving clinging behaviors and leading to a mastering of the primary anxiety of loosing support.

Personality patterns of anxiety during occupational deep dives with long-term confinement in hyperbaric chamber.

Extreme environments are generally thought to be stressful situations. Occupational deep diving inflicts periods of long-term confinement in hyperbaric chambers and high-pressure exposure on divers. Such extreme environmental conditions have been demonstrated to produce acute responses of anxiety in individual divers. Although these studies have mentioned personality as a factor explaining why some divers reported an increase in ratings of anxiety, the role of personality traits still remains unclear. The present study examines the possible role of personality traits in the development of diving anxiety. Results confirm that diving anxiety remains at the individual level and relatively transient and suggest that personality factors, such as low self-control and emotional instability, that reflect an incapacity to control and express tension in an appropriate manner would play a crucial role in the occurrence of diving anxiety.

An anxiety, personality and altitude symptomatology study during a 31-day period of hypoxia in a hypobaric chamber (experiment 'Everest-Comex 1997').

Extreme environmental situations are useful tools for the investigation of the general processes of adaptation. Among such situations, high altitude of more than 3000 m produces a set of pathological disorders that includes both cerebral (cAS) and respiratory (RAS) altitude symptoms. High altitude exposure further induces anxiety responses and behavioural disturbances. The authors report an investigation on anxiety responses, personality traits, and altitude symptoms (AS) in climbers participating in a 31-day period of confinement and gradual decompression in a hypobaric chamber equivalent to a climb from sea-level to Mount Everest (8848 m altitude). Personality traits, state-trait anxiety, and AS were assessed, using the Cattell 16 Personality Factor questionnaire (16PF), the Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), and the Lake Louise concensus questionnaire. Results show significant group effect for state-anxiety and AS; state-anxiety and AS increased as altitude increased. They also show that state-type anxiety shows a similar time-course to cAS, but not RAS. Alternatively, our results demonstrate a significant negative correlation between Factor M of the 16PF questionnaire, which is a personality trait that ranges from praxernia to autia. In contrast, no significant correlation was found between personality traits and AS. This suggests that AS could not be predicted using personality traits and further support that personality traits, such as praxernia (happening sensitivity), could play a major role in the occurrence of state-type anxiety responses in extreme environments. In addition, the general processes of coping and adaptation in individuals participating in extreme environmental experiments are discussed.