Genetic diversity among sea otter isolates of Toxoplasma gondii.

Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) have been reported to become infected with Toxoplasma gondii and at times succumb to clinical disease. Here, we determined genotypes of 39 T. gondii isolates from 37 sea otters in two geographically distant locations (25 from California and 12 from Washington). Six genotypes were identified using 10 PCR-RFLP genetic markers including SAG1, SAG2, SAG3, BTUB, GRA6, c22-8, c29-2, L358, PK1, and Apico, and by DNA sequencing of loci SAG1 and GRA6 in 13 isolates. Of these 39 isolates, 13 (33%) were clonal Type II which can be further divided into two groups at the locus Apico. Two of the 39 isolates had Type II alleles at all loci except a Type I allele at locus L358. One isolate had Type II alleles at all loci except the Type I alleles at loci L358 and Apico. One isolate had Type III alleles at all loci except Type II alleles at SAG2 and Apico. Two sea otter isolates had a mixed infection. Twenty-one (54%) isolates had an unique allele at SAG1 locus. Further genotyping or DNA sequence analysis for 18 of these 21 isolates at loci SAG1 and GRA6 revealed that there were two different genotypes, including the previously identified Type X (four isolates) and a new genotype named Type A (14 isolates). The results from this study suggest that the sea otter isolates are genetically diverse.

Modest genetic differentiation among North American populations of Sarcocystis neurona may reflect expansion in its geographic range.

Sarcocystis neurona is an important cause of neurological disease in horses (equine protozoal myeloencephalitis, EPM) and sea otters in the United States. In addition, EPM-like disease has been diagnosed in several other land and marine mammals. Opossums are its only definitive hosts. Little genetic diversity among isolates of S. neurona from different hosts has been reported. Here, we used 11 microsatellites to characterize S. neurona DNA isolated from natural infections in 22 sea otters (Enhydra lutris) from California and Washington and in 11 raccoons (Procyon lotor) and 1 striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis) from Wisconsin. By jointly analyzing these 34 isolates with 26 isolates previously reported, we determined that geographic barriers may limit S. neurona dispersal and that only a limited subset of possible parasite genotypes may have been introduced to recently established opossum populations. Moreover, our study confirms that diverse intermediate hosts share a common infection source, the opossum (Didelphis virginiana).

Protozoal meningoencephalitis in sea otters (Enhydra lutris): a histopathological and immunohistochemical study of naturally occurring cases.

Protozoal meningoencephalitis is considered to be an important cause of mortality in the California sea otter (Enhydra lutris). Thirty nine of 344 (11.3%) California (CA) and Washington state (WA) sea otters examined from 1985 to 2004 had histopathological evidence of significant protozoal meningoencephalitis. The aetiological agents and histopathological changes associated with these protozoal infections are described. The morphology of the actively multiplicative life stages of the organisms (tachyzoites for Toxoplasma gondii and merozoites for Sarcocystis neurona) and immunohistochemical labelling were used to identify infection with S. neurona (n=22, 56.4%), T. gondii (n=5, 12.8%) or dual infection with both organisms (n=12, 30.8%). Active S. neurona was present in all dual infections, while most had only the latent form of T. gondii. In S. neurona meningoencephalitis, multifocal to diffuse gliosis was widespread in grey matter and consistently present in the molecular layer of the cerebellum. In T. gondii meningoencephalitis, discrete foci of gliosis and malacia were more widely separated, sometimes incorporated pigment-laden macrophages and mineral, and were found predominantly in the cerebral cortex. Quiescent tissue cysts of T. gondii were considered to be incidental and not a cause of clinical disease and mortality. Protozoal meningoencephalitis was diagnosed more frequently in the expanding population of WA sea otters (10 of 31, 32.3%) than in the declining CA population (29 of 313, 9.3%). Among sea otters with protozoal meningoencephalitis, those that had displayed neurological signs prior to death had active S. neurona encephalitis, supporting the conclusion that S. neurona is the most significant protozoal pathogen in the central nervous system of sea otters.

Optimizing the deep brain stimulation care pathway in patients with Parkinson's disease.

Management of Parkinson's disease (PD) using deep brain stimulation (DBS) requires complex care in specialized, multidisciplinary centers. A well-organized, efficient patient flow is crucial to ensure that eligible patients can quickly access DBS. Delays or inefficiencies in patient care may impact a center's ability to meet demand, creating a capacity bottleneck. Analysis of the current practices within a center may help identify areas for improvement. After external audit of the DBS workflow of the Lyon Neurological Hospital and comparison with other European centers, manageable steps were suggested to restructure the care pathway. Propositions of the audit comprised, for example: (1) directly admitting referred patients to hospital, without a prior neurological outpatient visit and (2) including the preoperative anesthesia consultation in the hospital stay 1 month before surgery, not separately. This reorganization (between 2013 and 2016) was performed without increases in hospital medical resources or costs. The time from patients' first referral to surgery was reduced (from 22 to 16 months; p = 0.033), as was the number of pre- and postoperative patient visits (11-5; p = 0.025) and the total cumulative length of in-hospital stay (20.5-17.5 nights; p = 0.02). Ultimately, the total number of PD consultations increased (346-498 per year), as did the number of DBS implants per year (32-45 patients). In this single center experience, restructuring the DBS care pathway allowed a higher number of PD patients to benefit from DBS therapy, with a shorter waiting time and without decreasing the quality of care.

Genetic variants of surfactant proteins A, B, C, and D in bronchopulmonary dysplasia.

BPD_28D (O2 dependency at 28 days of life) and BPD_36W (O2 dependency at 36 wks post-menstrual age) are diseases of prematurely born infants exposed to mechanical ventilation and/or oxygen supplementation. In order to determine whether genetic variants of surfactant proteins (SPs-A, B, C, and D) and SP-B-linked microsatellite markers are risk factors in BPD, we performed a family based association study using a Greek study group of 71 neonates (<30 wks gestational age) from 60 families with, 52 BPD_28D and 19 BPD_36W, affected infants. Genotyping was performed using newly designed pyrosequencing assays and previously published methods. Associations between genetic variants of SPs and BPD subgroups were determined using Transmission Disequilibrium Test (TDT) and Family Based Association Test (FBAT). Significant associations (p

Basic fibroblast growth factor stimulates functional recovery after neonatal lesions of motor cortex in rats.

Rats were given bilateral lesions of the motor cortex on the tenth day of life, and then received a daily subcutaneously injection of either basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-2) or vehicle for 7 consecutive days. In adulthood, they were trained and assessed on a skilled forelimb reaching task. Although all lesion groups were impaired at skilled reaching, the postnatal day 10-lesioned group that received FGF-2 was less impaired than the lesion group that received the vehicle. Furthermore, the lesioned rats that received FGF-2 showed a filling of the lesion cavity with tissue, whereas the lesioned vehicle-treated rats still had a prominent lesion cavity. The functionality of the tissue filling the cavity, tissue surrounding it, and tissue from the motor cortex (in control rats) was assessed using intracortical microstimulation, and showed that stimulation of some sites from the filled cavity could evoke movement. The rats were perfused and processed for Golgi-Cox staining. Medium spiny neurons from the striatum were drawn and analyzed, and the results suggest that postnatal day 10 lesions of the motor cortex induced an increase in the length and complexity of these cells compared with those of non-lesioned rats. Our results suggest that FGF-2 may play an important role in recovery from early brain damage.

Maternal uptake of pertussis cocooning strategy and other pregnancy related recommended immunizations.

Maternal immunization is an important strategy to prevent severe morbidity and mortality in mothers and their offspring. This study aimed to identify whether new parents were following immunization recommendations prior to pregnancy, during pregnancy, and postnatally. A cross-sectional survey was conducted by a questionnaire administered antenatally to pregnant women attending a maternity hospital with a follow-up telephone interview at 8-10 weeks post-delivery. Factors associated with uptake of pertussis vaccination within the previous 5 y or postnatally and influenza vaccination during pregnancy were explored using log binomial regression models. A total of 297 pregnant women completed the questionnaire. For influenza vaccine, 20.3% were immunized during pregnancy and 3.0% postnatally. For pertussis vaccine, 13.1% were vaccinated within 5 y prior to pregnancy and 31 women received the vaccine postnatally, 16 (51.6%) received the vaccine >4 weeks after delivery. Receiving a recommendation from a healthcare provider (HCP) was an independent predictor for receipt of both pertussis (RR 2.07, p < 0.001) and influenza vaccine (RR 2.26, p = 0.001). Non-English speaking mothers were significantly less likely to have received pertussis vaccination prior to pregnancy or postnatally (RR 0.24, p = 0.011). Multiparous pregnant women were less likely to have received an influenza vaccine during their current pregnancy (p = 0.015). Uptake of pregnancy related immunization is low and likely due to poor knowledge of availability, language barriers and lack of recommendations from HCPs. Strategies to improve maternal vaccine uptake should include education about recommended vaccines for both HCPs and parents and written information in a variety of languages.

Biological characterisation of Sarcocystis neurona isolated from a Southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis).

Sarcocystis neurona was isolated from the brain of a juvenile, male southern sea otter (Enhydra lutris nereis) suffering from CNS disease. Schizonts and merozoites in tissue sections of the otter's brain reacted with anti-S. neurona antiserum immunohistochemically. Development in cell culture was by endopolyogeny and mature schizonts were first observed at 3 days postinoculation. PCR of merozoite DNA using primer pairs JNB33/JNB54 and restriction enzyme digestion of the 1100 bp product with Dra I indicated the organism was S. neurona. Four of four interferon-gamma gene knockout mice inoculated with merozoites developed S. neurona-associated encephalitis. Antibodies to S. neurona but not Sarcocystis falcatula, Toxoplasma gondii, or Neospora caninum were present in the serum of inoculated mice. This is the first isolation of S. neurona from the brain of a non-equine host.

Myocardial revascularization for the third time. Clinical characteristics and follow-up.

Twenty-five patients presenting for a third revascularization procedure were retrospectively reviewed at Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL. This represents 0.5 percent of the total revascularization cases over a five-year period extending from 1985 through 1989. Perioperative mortality was none, and seven complications occurred in six patients. Internal mammary arteries were used for revascularization in 60 percent of this group. Follow-up reveals that only one patient has died secondary to an arrhythmia. All patients except one are symptomatically improved, and 18 patients remain angina free at a mean follow-up of 22.3 months. It is therefore concluded that patients are clinically improved with a third revascularization, and this procedure should be offered as an effective means of treatment.

Hereditary vascular dementia linked to notch 3 mutations. CADASIL in British families.

The most common form of familial vascular dementia is considered to be CADASIL or cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy, which is now also increasingly manifest in the United Kingdom. CADASIL has been previously dubbed as a familial form of Binswanger disease. However, unlike in Binswanger disease CADASIL does not involve hypertension or other risk factors associated with cardiovascular disease. CADASIL appears to be essentially a disorder of the arteries that is linked to single missense mutations in the NOTCH 3 gene locus on chromosome 19. The pathogenesis of the disorder or the genetic mechanism leading to brain infarcts and dementia is not known. The elucidation of the microvascular pathology evident in CADASIL may be an interesting way to delineate effects of defective genes on brain cells from systemic vascular influences.

Semilunar valve switch procedure: autotransplantation of the native aortic valve to the pulmonary position in the Ross procedure.

BACKGROUND: The Ross procedure has gained wide acceptance in young patients with aortic valve disease. The durability of the pulmonary autograft in the aortic position has been proved, with up to 24 years of follow-up. The homograft pulmonary valve, however, has limited longevity. To circumvent this problem we harvested, repaired, and reimplanted the native aortic valve with intact commissures in the pulmonary position in 13 patients undergoing the Ross procedure for aortic insufficiency. METHODS: The cause of aortic insufficiency was rheumatic in 6 patients, congenital in 4, post-aortic valvotomy in 2, and bacterial endocarditis in 1. Patient age ranged from 5 to 45 years (mean, 17+/-9 years). Root replacement technique with coronary artery reimplantation was used. In the first 4 patients, the native aortic valve was sutured into the right ventricular outflow tract, and a polytetrafluorethylene patch was used to reconstruct the main pulmonary artery. In the last 9 patients, the aortic valve and polytetrafluorethylene patch were made into a conduit by another surgeon while the left-sided reconstruction was performed. RESULTS: All patients had marked reduction of left ventricular dilation and good function of the reimplanted native aortic valve, with up to 50 months of follow-up (mean, 29.9+/-14.2 months; range, 12 to 50 months). Two patients died 15 and 26 days, respectively, of a false aneurysm rupture at the distal aortic anastomosis. In the remaining 11 patients, 9 (82%) had mild or absent, and 2 (18%) had mild to moderate, neoaortic valve regurgitation. Similarly, 9 patients (82%) had mild or absent, and 2 (18%) had mild to moderate, neopulmonary valve regurgitation. Mild neopulmonary valve stenosis was present in 6 patients (54%) (mean gradient, 29+/-4 mm Hg; range, 25 to 35 mm Hg). All surviving patients are in functional New York Heart Association functional class I. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that use of the native aortic valve with the Ross procedure makes the procedure attractive and potentially curative. The diseased aortic valve works well in the pulmonary position because of lower pressure and resistance. The valve leaflets should remain viable and grow in both the pulmonary and aortic positions because they derive nutrition directly from the blood.

Hypopi (Acari: Hypoderatidae) of the wood stork (Aves: Ciconiiformes; Ciconiidae).

A new species is described and additional host records are presented for 2 other species of deutonymphs of the family Hypoderatidae from the subcutaneous adipose tissues of the wood stork, Mycteria americana L. Phalacrodectes (Phalacrodectes) mycteria n. sp. appears to share affinities with species from both pelicaniform and ciconiiform hosts, but it most closely resembles P. (P.) punctatissimus (Cerný) Pence & Courtney from pelicans in idiosomal chaetotaxy, cuticular sclerotization, and posteriorly divergent, widely separated genital openings. The new species differs from this and other species of the genus by its small size, the degree of separation of the genital openings with papillae, no secondary sclerotization in the perigenital area or surrounding the genital openings, and the long filiform setae s and w on genu III. There was a mixed infection of Neottialges kutzeri Fain and N. mycteriae Pence in all of 7 wood storks examined from Florida and Georgia; P. (P.) mycteria was found in 4 of these hosts. This is the 7th species described as a deutonymph in the genus Phalacrodectes. The apparent close affinity of P. (P.) mycteria with P. (P.) punctatissimus and allied species from pelicaniform versus ciconiiform birds appears to be inconsistent with the established host-parasite relationships based on classical avian taxonomic relationships. However, this apparent affinity may be more reflective of the close relationships between the families of pelicans, ibises and spoonbills, and storks as recently proposed by DNA-DNA hybridization studies.

Dual Sarcocystis neurona and Toxoplasma gondii infection in a Northern sea otter from Washington state, USA.

Dual Sarcocystis neurona and Toxoplasma gondii infection was observed in a Northern sea otter from Washington, USA. The animal was found stranded, convulsed, and died shortly thereafter. Encephalitis caused by both S. neurona and T. gondii was demonstrated in histological sections of brain. Immunohistochemical examination of sections with S. neurona specific antisera demonstrated developmental stages that divided by endopolygeny and produced numerous merozoites. PCR of brain tissue from the sea otter using primer pairs JNB33/JNB54 resulted in amplification of a 1100 bp product. This PCR product was cut in to 884 and 216 bp products by Dra I but was not cut by Hinf I indicating that it was S. neurona [J. Parasitol. 85 (1999) 221]. No PCR product was detected in the brain of a sea otter which had no lesions of encephalitis. Examination of brain sections using T. gondii specific antisera demonstrated tachyzoites and tissue cysts of T. gondii. The lesions induced by T. gondii suggested that the sea otter was suffering from reactivated toxoplasmosis. T. gondii was isolated in mice inoculated with brain tissue. A cat that was fed infected mouse brain tissue excreted T. gondii oocysts which were infective for mice. This is apparently the first report of dual S. neurona and T. gondii in a marine mammal.

Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Sarcocystis neurona, and Sarcocystis canis-like infections in marine mammals.

Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Sarcocystis neurona, and S. canis are related protozoans that can cause mortality in many species of domestic and wild animals. Recently, T. gondii and S. neurona were recognized to cause encephalitis in marine mammals. As yet, there is no report of natural exposure of N. caninum in marine mammals. In the present study, antibodies to T. gondii and N. caninum were assayed in sera of several species of marine mammals. For T. gondii, sera were diluted 1:25, 1:50, and 1:500 and assayed in the T. gondii modified agglutination test (MAT). Antibodies (MAT > or =1:25) to T. gondii were found in 89 of 115 (77%) dead, and 18 of 30 (60%) apparently healthy sea otters (Enhydra lutris), 51 of 311 (16%) Pacific harbor seals (Phoca vitulina), 19 of 45 (42%) sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) [corrected] 5 of 32 (16%) ringed seals (Phoca hispida), 4 of 8 (50%) bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus), 1 of 9 (11.1%) spotted seals (Phoca largha), 138 of 141 (98%) Atlantic bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), and 3 of 53 (6%) walruses (Odobenus rosmarus). For N. caninum, sera were diluted 1:40, 1:80, 1:160, and 1:320 and examined with the Neospora agglutination test (NAT) using mouse-derived tachyzoites. NAT antibodies were found in 3 of 53 (6%) walruses, 28 of 145 (19%) sea otters, 11 of 311 (3.5%) harbor seals, 1 of 27 (3.7%) sea lions, 4 of 32 (12.5%) ringed seals, 1 of 8 (12.5%) bearded seals, and 43 of 47 (91%) bottlenose dolphins. To our knowledge, this is the first report of N. caninum antibodies in any marine mammal, and the first report of T. gondii antibodies in walruses and in ringed, bearded, spotted, and ribbon seals. Current information on T. gondii-like and Sarcocystis-like infections in marine mammals is reviewed. New cases of clinical S. canis and T. gondii infections are also reported in sea lions, and T. gondii infection in an Antillean manatee (Trichechus manatus manatus).

Sarcocysts of an unidentified species of Sarcocystis in the sea otter (Enhydra lutris).

The number of Sarcocystis species that infect sea otters (Enhydra lutris) is unknown. Sea otter tissues were recently shown to harbor sarcocysts of S. neurona and of unidentified species of Sarcocystis. Whereas sarcocysts of S. neurona have walls 1-3 microm thick with type 9 villar protrusions, ultrastructure of a distinct thin-walled sarcocyst (0.5-0.7 microm thick) lacking villar protrusions, but instead exhibiting minute type 1 undulations on the sarcocyst wall, is described in this report. Parasites characterized from a sea otter infection were inferred to be related to, but distinct from, other species belonging to Sarcocystis, based on sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of a portion of the beta subunit of the plastid-encoded RNA polymerase gene.

Sarcocystis neurona infections in sea otter (Enhydra lutris): evidence for natural infections with sarcocysts and transmission of infection to opossums (Didelphis virginiana).

Although Sarcocystis neurona has been identified in an array of terrestrial vertebrates, recent recognition of its capacity to infect marine mammals was unexpected. Here, sarcocysts from 2 naturally infected sea otters (Enhydra lutris) were characterized biologically, ultrastructurally, and genetically. DNA was extracted from frozen muscle of the first of these sea otters and was characterized as S. neurona by polymerase chain reation (PCR) amplification followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis and sequencing. Sarcocysts from sea otter no. 1 were up to 350 microm long, and the villar protrusions on the sarcocyst wall were up to 1.3 microm long and up to 0.25 microm wide. The villar protrusions were tapered towards the villar tip. Ultrastructurally, sarcocysts were similar to S. neurona sarcocysts from the muscles of cats experimentally infected with S. neurona sporocysts. Skeletal muscles from a second sea otter failed to support PCR amplification of markers considered diagnostic for S. neurona but did induce the shedding of sporocysts when fed to a laboratory-raised opossum (Didelphis virginiana). Such sporocysts were subsequently fed to knockout mice for the interferon-gamma gene, resulting in infections with an agent identified as S. neurona on the basis of immunohistochemistry, serum antibodies, and diagnostic sequence detection. Thus, sea otters exposed to S. neurona may support the development of mature sarcocysts that are infectious to competent definitive hosts.

Biological and molecular characterizations of Toxoplasma gondii strains obtained from southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis).

Toxoplasma gondii was isolated from brain or heart tissue from 15 southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) in cell cultures. These strains were used to infect mice that developed antibodies to T. gondii as detected in the modified direct agglutination test and had T. gondii tissue cysts in their brains at necropsy. Mouse brains containing tissue cysts from 4 of the strains were fed to 4 cats. Two of the cats excreted T. gondii oocysts in their feces that were infectious for mice. Molecular analyses of 13 strains indicated that they were all type II strains, but that they were genetically distinct from one another.

DDE poisoning in an adult Bald eagle.

A 12-year-old female bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) was found in May 1993 on Santa Catalina Island, California (USA), in a debilitated condition, exhibiting ataxia and tremors; it died within hours. On necropsy, the bird was emaciated but had no evidence of disease or physical injury. Chemical analyses were negative for organophosphorus pesticides and lead poisoning. High concentrations of DDE (wet weight basis) were found in the brain (212 ppm), liver (838 ppm), and serum (53 ppm). Mobilization of DDE, from depleted fat deposits, probably resulted in the lethal concentration in the eagle's brain.