Risk factors for stunting in children who are HIV-exposed and uninfected after Option B+ implementation in Malawi.

Evidence suggests children HIV-exposed and uninfected (CHEU) experience poor growth. We analysed child anthropometrics and explored factors associated with stunting among Malawian CHEU. Mothers with HIV and their infants HIV-exposed were enroled in a nationally representative prospective cohort within the National Evaluation of Malawi's Prevention of Mother-to-Child HIV Transmission Programme after Option B+ implementation (2014-2018). Anthropometry was measured at enrolment (age 1-6 months), visit 1 (approximately 12 months), and visit 2 (approximately 24 months). Weight-for-age (WAZ) and length-for-age (LAZ) z-scores were calculated using World Health Organization Growth Standards; underweight and stunting were defined as WAZ and LAZ more than 2 standard deviations below the reference median. Multivariable logistic regression restricted to CHEU aged 24 months (±3 months) was used to identify factors associated with stunting. Among 1211 CHEU, 562/1211 attended visit 2, of which 529 were aged 24 months (±3 months) and were included. At age 24 months, 40.4% of CHEU were stunted and/or underweight, respectively. In multi-variable analysis, adjusting for child age and sex, the odds of stunting were higher among CHEU with infectious disease diagnosis compared to those with no diagnosis (adjusted odds ratio = 3.35 [95% confidence interval: 1.82-6.17]), which was modified by co-trimoxazole prophylaxis (p = 0.028). Infant low birthweight was associated with an increased odds of stunting; optimal feeding and maternal employment were correlated with reduced odds. This is one of the first studies examining CHEU growth since Option B+. Interventions to improve linear growth among CHEU should address their multi-faceted health risks, alongside maternal ART prescription, and follow-up of mother-child pairs.

The National Evaluation of Malawi's PMTCT Program (NEMAPP) study: 24-month HIV-exposed infant outcomes from a prospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVES: Data on long-term HIV-free survival in breastfeeding, HIV-exposed infants (HEIs) are limited. The National Evaluation of Malawi's Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission (PMTCT) Program (NEMAPP), conducted between 2014 and 2018, evaluated mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) and infant outcomes up to 24 months postpartum. METHODS: We enrolled a nationally representative cohort of HEIs at 54 health facilities across four regional strata in Malawi and used multivariable Cox regression analysis to investigate the risk of adverse outcomes (HIV transmission, infant death and loss to follow-up) to 24 months postpartum. Models, controlling for survey design, were fitted for the total cohort (n = 3462) and for a subcohort that received maternal viral load (VL) monitoring (n = 1282). RESULTS: By 24 months, in 3462 HEIs, weighted cumulative MTCT was 4.9% [95% confidence interval (CI) 3.7-6.4%], 1.3% (95% CI 0.8-2.2%) of HEIs had died, 26.2% (95% CI 24.0-28.6%) had been lost to follow-up and 67.5% (95% CI 65.0-70.0%) were alive and HIV-free. Primiparity [weighted adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) 1.6; 95% CI 1.1-2.2; parity 2-3: weighted aHR 1.5; 95% CI 1.2-1.9], the mother not disclosing her HIV status to her partner (no disclosure: weighted aHR 1.3; 95% CI 1.1-1.6; no partner: weighted aHR 0.7; 95% CI 0.5-0.9), unknown maternal ART start (weighted aHR 2.0; 95% CI 1.0-3.9) and poor adherence (missed ≥ 2 days of ART in the last month: weighted aHR 1.7; 95% CI 1.2-2.2; not on ART: weighted aHR 1.7; 95% CI 1.0-2.7) were associated with adverse outcomes by 24 months. In the subcohort analysis, risk of HIV transmission or infant death was higher among HEIs whose mothers started ART post-conception (during pregnancy: weighted aHR 3.2; 95% CI 1.3-7.7; postpartum: weighted aHR 12.4; 95% CI 1.5-99.6) or when maternal viral load at enrolment was > 1000 HIV-1 RNA copies/mL (weighted aHR 15.7; 95% CI 7.8-31.3). CONCLUSIONS: Infant positivity and infant mortality at 24 months were low for a breastfeeding population. Starting ART pre-conception had the greatest impact on HIV-free survival in HEIs. Further population-level reduction in MTCT may require additional intervention during breastfeeding for women new to PMTCT programmes. Pre-partum diagnosis and linkage to ART, followed by continuous engagement in care during breastfeeding can further reduce MTCT but are challenging to implement.

Deaths Attributed to Respiratory Syncytial Virus in Young Children in High-Mortality Rate Settings: Report from Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance (CHAMPS).

BACKGROUND: Lower respiratory tract infections are a leading cause of death in young children, but few studies have collected the specimens needed to define the role of specific causes. The Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance (CHAMPS) platform aims to investigate causes of death in children aged <5 years in high-mortality rate settings, using postmortem minimally invasive tissue sampling and other advanced diagnostic techniques. We examined findings for deaths identified in CHAMPS sites in 7 countries in sub-Saharan Africa and south Asia to evaluate the role of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). METHODS: We included deaths that occurred between December 2016 and December 2019. Panels determined causes of deaths by reviewing all available data including pathological results from minimally invasive tissue sampling, polymerase chain reaction screening for multiple infectious pathogens in lung tissue, nasopharyngeal swab, blood, and cerebrospinal fluid samples, clinical information from medical records, and verbal autopsies. RESULTS: We evaluated 1213 deaths, including 695 in neonates (aged <28 days), 283 in infants (28 days to <12 months), and 235 in children (12-59 months). RSV was detected in postmortem specimens in 67 of 1213 deaths (5.5%); in 24 deaths (2.0% of total), RSV was determined to be a cause of death, and it contributed to 5 other deaths. Younger infants (28 days to <6 months of age) accounted for half of all deaths attributed to RSV; 6.5% of all deaths in younger infants were attributed to RSV. RSV was the underlying and only cause in 4 deaths; the remainder (n = 20) had a median of 2 (range, 1-5) other conditions in the causal chain. Birth defects (n = 8) and infections with other pathogens (n = 17) were common comorbid conditions. CONCLUSIONS: RSV is an important cause of child deaths, particularly in young infants. These findings add to the substantial body of literature calling for better treatment and prevention options for RSV in high-mortality rate settings.

Postmortem investigations and identification of multiple causes of child deaths: An analysis of findings from the Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance (CHAMPS) network.

BACKGROUND: The current burden of >5 million deaths yearly is the focus of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) to end preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 years old by 2030. To accelerate progression toward this goal, data are needed that accurately quantify the leading causes of death, so that interventions can target the common causes. By adding postmortem pathology and microbiology studies to other available data, the Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance (CHAMPS) network provides comprehensive evaluations of conditions leading to death, in contrast to standard methods that rely on data from medical records and verbal autopsy and report only a single underlying condition. We analyzed CHAMPS data to characterize the value of considering multiple causes of death. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We examined deaths identified from December 2016 through November 2020 from 7 CHAMPS sites (in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Sierra Leone, and South Africa), including 741 neonatal, 278 infant, and 241 child <5 years deaths for which results from Determination of Cause of Death (DeCoDe) panels were complete. DeCoDe panelists included all conditions in the causal chain according to the ICD-10 guidelines and assessed if prevention or effective management of the condition would have prevented the death. We analyzed the distribution of all conditions listed as causal, including underlying, antecedent, and immediate causes of death. Among 1,232 deaths with an underlying condition determined, we found a range of 0 to 6 (mean 1.5, IQR 0 to 2) additional conditions in the causal chain leading to death. While pathology provides very helpful clues, we cannot always be certain that conditions identified led to death or occurred in an agonal stage of death. For neonates, preterm birth complications (most commonly respiratory distress syndrome) were the most common underlying condition (n = 282, 38%); among those with preterm birth complications, 256 (91%) had additional conditions in causal chains, including 184 (65%) with a different preterm birth complication, 128 (45%) with neonatal sepsis, 69 (24%) with lower respiratory infection (LRI), 60 (21%) with meningitis, and 25 (9%) with perinatal asphyxia/hypoxia. Of the 278 infant deaths, 212 (79%) had ≥1 additional cause of death (CoD) beyond the underlying cause. The 2 most common underlying conditions in infants were malnutrition and congenital birth defects; LRI and sepsis were the most common additional conditions in causal chains, each accounting for approximately half of deaths with either underlying condition. Of the 241 child deaths, 178 (75%) had ≥1 additional condition. Among 46 child deaths with malnutrition as the underlying condition, all had ≥1 other condition in the causal chain, most commonly sepsis, followed by LRI, malaria, and diarrheal disease. Including all positions in the causal chain for neonatal deaths resulted in 19-fold and 11-fold increases in attributable roles for meningitis and LRI, respectively. For infant deaths, the proportion caused by meningitis and sepsis increased by 16-fold and 11-fold, respectively; for child deaths, sepsis and LRI are increased 12-fold and 10-fold, respectively. While comprehensive CoD determinations were done for a substantial number of deaths, there is potential for bias regarding which deaths in surveillance areas underwent minimally invasive tissue sampling (MITS), potentially reducing representativeness of findings. CONCLUSIONS: Including conditions that appear anywhere in the causal chain, rather than considering underlying condition alone, markedly changed the proportion of deaths attributed to various diagnoses, especially LRI, sepsis, and meningitis. While CHAMPS methods cannot determine when 2 conditions cause death independently or may be synergistic, our findings suggest that considering the chain of events leading to death can better guide research and prevention priorities aimed at reducing child deaths.

Treatment-adjusted prevalence to assess HIV testing programmes.

Scale-up of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing and antiretroviral therapy (ART) for people living with HIV has been increasing in sub-Saharan Africa. As a result, areas with high HIV prevalence are finding a declining proportion of people testing positive in their national testing programmes. In eastern and southern Africa, where there are settings with adult HIV prevalence of 12% and above, the positivity from national HIV testing services has dropped to below 5%. Identifying those in need of ART is therefore becoming more costly for national HIV programmes. Annual target-setting assumes that national testing positivity rates approximate that of population prevalence. This assumption has generated an increased focus on testing approaches which achieve higher rates of HIV positivity. This trend is a departure from the provider-initiated testing and counselling strategy used early in the global HIV response. We discuss a new indicator, treatment-adjusted prevalence, that countries can use as a practical benchmark for estimating the expected adult positivity in a testing programme when accounting for both national HIV prevalence and ART coverage. The indicator is calculated by removing those people receiving ART from the numerator and denominator of HIV prevalence. Treatment-adjusted prevalence can be readily estimated from existing programme data and population estimates, and in 2019, was added to the World Health Organization guidelines for HIV testing and strategic information. Using country examples from Kenya, Malawi, South Sudan and Zimbabwe we illustrate how to apply this indicator and we discuss the potential public health implications of its use from the national to facility level.

Le dépistage du virus de l'immunodéficience humaine (VIH) et le traitement antirétroviral (TAR) pour les personnes vivant avec le VIH ont connu un véritable essor en Afrique subsaharienne. Par conséquent, les régions touchées par une forte prévalence du VIH détectent un pourcentage moins élevé de personnes testées positives dans leurs programmes de dépistage nationaux. En Afrique orientale et australe, là où certains endroits affichent une prévalence du VIH chez l'adulte égale ou supérieure à 12%, le taux de positivité des services de dépistage nationaux est passé sous la barre des 5%. Identifier les personnes nécessitant un TAR devient donc plus coûteux pour les programmes nationaux consacrés au VIH. Pour définir les objectifs annuels, on part du principe que les taux de positivité nationaux se rapprochent du taux de prévalence au sein de la population. Cette supposition a orienté les démarches vers des méthodes de dépistage permettant d'obtenir des taux de positivité plus élevés; une tendance qui s'écarte de la stratégie des services de dépistage et de conseil à l'initiative des prestataires, utilisée à l'aube de la lutte mondiale contre le VIH. Dans le présent document, nous nous intéressons à un nouvel indicateur, la prévalence ajustée sur le traitement. Cet indicateur peut servir de référence concrète pour les pays qui souhaitent évaluer le taux de positivité attendu chez l'adulte dans un programme de dépistage, en tenant compte de la prévalence du VIH au niveau national ainsi que de la portée du TAR. Le calcul consiste à enlever les personnes recevant un TAR du numérateur et du dénominateur de la prévalence du VIH. La prévalence ajustée sur le traitement peut aisément être déterminée en fonction des données de programme et estimations de population existantes. En 2019, elle a également été ajoutée aux lignes directrices de l'Organisation mondiale de la Santé pour l'information stratégique et le dépistage du VIH. En nous inspirant d'exemples issus du Kenya, du Malawi, du Soudan du Sud et du Zimbabwe, nous expliquons comment employer cet indicateur et abordons les potentielles implications liées à son utilisation en matière de santé publique, en partant du niveau national jusqu'aux établissements.

La ampliación de las pruebas de detección del virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) y del tratamiento antirretrovírico (TAR) para las personas infectadas por el VIH ha aumentado en el África subsahariana. En consecuencia, el porcentaje de personas que dan positivo en las pruebas de detección del VIH en los programas nacionales está disminuyendo en las zonas con alta prevalencia del virus. En África meridional y oriental, donde hay entornos con una prevalencia del VIH en adultos del 12 % o superior, la tasa de positividad de los servicios nacionales de pruebas de detección del VIH ha descendido a menos del 5 %. Por lo tanto, la identificación de las personas que necesitan TAR es cada vez más costosa para los programas nacionales de VIH. El establecimiento de objetivos anuales supone que las tasas de positividad de las pruebas nacionales se aproximan a las de la prevalencia de la población. Esta suposición ha generado una mayor atención a los enfoques de las pruebas que logran tasas más altas de positividad del VIH. Esta tendencia se aleja de la estrategia del asesoramiento y las pruebas que iniciaron los proveedores y que se utilizó al principio de la respuesta mundial al VIH. Se analiza un nuevo indicador, la prevalencia ajustada según el tratamiento, que los países pueden emplear como punto de referencia práctico para estimar la tasa de positividad esperada en adultos en un programa de pruebas de detección cuando se tiene en cuenta tanto la prevalencia nacional del VIH como la cobertura del TAR. El indicador se calcula eliminando del numerador y el denominador de la prevalencia del VIH a las personas que reciben TAR. La prevalencia ajustada según el tratamiento se puede estimar con facilidad a partir de los datos de los programas existentes y de las estimaciones de población, además, en 2019, se incluyó en las directrices de la Organización Mundial de la Salud para las pruebas de detección del VIH y en la información estratégica. A través de ejemplos de países como Kenia, Malaui, Sudán meridional y Zimbabue, se demuestra cómo aplicar este indicador y se discuten las posibles implicaciones para la salud pública de su uso desde el nivel nacional hasta el de los centros.

Strengthening provider-initiated testing and counselling in Zimbabwe by deploying supplemental providers: a time series analysis.

BACKGROUND: Expansion of provider-initiated testing and counselling (PITC) is one strategy to increase accessibility of HIV testing services. Insufficient human resources was identified as a primary barrier to increasing PITC coverage in Zimbabwe. We evaluated if deployment of supplemental PITC providers at public facilities in Zimbabwe was associated with increased numbers of individuals tested and diagnosed with HIV. METHODS: From July 2016 to May 2017, International Training and Education Center for Health (I-TECH) deployed 138 PITC providers to supplement existing ministry healthcare workers offering PITC at 249 facilities. These supplemental providers were assigned to facilities on a weekly basis. Each week, I-TECH providers reported the number of HIV tests and positive diagnoses they performed. Using routine reporting systems, we obtained from each facility the number of clients tested and diagnosed with HIV per month. Including data both before and during the intervention period, and utilizing the weekly variability in placement locations of the supplemental PITC providers, we employed generalized estimating equations to assess if the placement of supplemental PITC providers at a facility was associated with a change in facility outputs. RESULTS: Supplemental PITC providers performed an average of 62 (SD = 52) HIV tests per week and diagnosed 4.4 (SD = 4.9) individuals with HIV per week. However, using facility reports from the same period, we found that each person-week of PITC provider deployment at a facility was associated with an additional 16.7 (95% CI, 12.2-21.1) individuals tested and an additional 0.9 (95% CI, 0.5-1.2) individuals diagnosed with HIV. We also found that staff placement at clinics was associated with a larger increase in HIV testing than staff placement at polyclinics or hospitals (24.0 vs. 9.8; p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: This program resulted in increased numbers of individuals tested and diagnosed with HIV. The discrepancy between the average weekly HIV tests conducted by supplemental PITC providers (62) and the increase in facility-level HIV tests associated with one week of PITC provider deployment (16.7) suggests that supplemental PITC providers displaced existing staff who may have been reassigned to fulfil other duties at the facility.

The Etiology of Male Urethral Discharge in Zimbabwe: Results from the Zimbabwe STI Etiology Study.

INTRODUCTION: Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are managed syndromically in most developing countries. In Zimbabwe, men presenting with urethral discharge are treated with a single intramuscular dose of kanamycin or ceftriaxone in combination with a week's course of oral doxycycline. This study was designed to assess the current etiology of urethral discharge and other STIs to inform current syndromic management regimens. METHODS: We conducted a study among 200 men with urethral discharge presenting at 6 regionally diverse STI clinics in Zimbabwe. Urethral specimens were tested by multiplex polymerase chain reaction testing for Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma genitalium, and Trichomonas vaginalis. In addition, serologic testing for syphilis and HIV was performed. RESULTS: Among the 200 studied men, one or more pathogens were identified in 163 (81.5%) men, including N. gonorrhoeae in 147 (73.5%), C. trachomatis in 45 (22.5%), T. vaginalis in 8 (4.0%), and M. genitalium in 7 (3.5%). Among all men, 121 (60%) had a single infection, 40 (20%) had dual infections, and 2 (1%) had 3 infections. Among the 45 men with C. trachomatis, 36 (80%) were coinfected with N. gonorrhoeae. Overall, 156 (78%) men had either N. gonorrhoeae or C. trachomatis identified. Of 151 men who consented to HIV testing, 43 (28.5%) tested positive. There were no differences in HIV status by study site or by urethral pathogen detected. CONCLUSIONS: Among men presenting at Zimbabwe STI clinics with urethral discharge, N. gonorrhoeae and C. trachomatis are the most commonly associated pathogens. Current syndromic management guidelines seem to be adequate for the treatment for symptomatic men, but future guidelines must be informed by ongoing monitoring of gonococcal resistance.

The Etiology of Genital Ulcer Disease and Coinfections With Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae in Zimbabwe: Results From the Zimbabwe STI Etiology Study.

BACKGROUND: In many countries, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are treated syndromically. Thus, patients diagnosed as having genital ulcer disease (GUD) in Zimbabwe receive a combination of antimicrobials to treat syphilis, chancroid, lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV), and genital herpes. Periodic studies are necessary to assess the current etiology of GUD and assure the appropriateness of current treatment guidelines. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We selected 6 geographically diverse clinics in Zimbabwe serving high numbers of STI cases to enroll men and women with STI syndromes, including GUD. Sexually transmitted infection history and risk behavioral data were collected by questionnaire and uploaded to a Web-based database. Ulcer specimens were obtained for testing using a validated multiplex polymerase chain reaction (M-PCR) assay for Treponema pallidum (TP; primary syphilis), Haemophilus ducreyi (chancroid), LGV-associated strains of Chlamydia trachomatis, and herpes simplex virus (HSV) types 1 and 2. Blood samples were collected for testing with HIV, treponemal, and nontreponemal serologic assays. RESULTS: Among 200 GUD patients, 77 (38.5%) were positive for HSV, 32 (16%) were positive for TP, and 2 (1%) were positive for LGV-associated strains of C trachomatis. No H ducreyi infections were detected. No organism was found in 98 (49.5%) of participants. The overall HIV positivity rate was 52.2% for all GUD patients, with higher rates among women compared with men (59.8% vs 45.2%, P < 0.05) and among patients with HSV (68.6% vs 41.8%, P < 0.0001). Among patients with GUD, 54 (27.3%) had gonorrhea and/or chlamydia infection. However, in this latter group, 66.7% of women and 70.0% of men did not have abnormal vaginal or urethral discharge on examination. CONCLUSIONS: Herpes simplex virus is the most common cause of GUD in our survey, followed by T. pallidum. No cases of chancroid were detected. The association of HIV infections with HSV suggests high risk for cotransmission; however, some HSV ulcerations may be due to HSV reactivation among immunocompromised patients. The overall prevalence of gonorrhea and chlamydia was high among patients with GUD and most of them did not meet the criteria for concomitant syndromic management covering these infections.

Status of HIV Epidemic Control Among Adolescent Girls and Young Women Aged 15-24 Years - Seven African Countries, 2015-2017.

In 2016, an estimated 1.5 million females aged 15-24 years were living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in Eastern and Southern Africa, where the prevalence of HIV infection among adolescent girls and young women (3.4%) is more than double that for males in the same age range (1.6%) (1). Progress was assessed toward the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) 2020 targets for adolescent girls and young women in sub-Saharan Africa (90% of those with HIV infection aware of their status, 90% of HIV-infected persons aware of their status on antiretroviral treatment [ART], and 90% of those on treatment virally suppressed [HIV viral load <1,000 HIV RNA copies/mL]) (2) using data from recent Population-based HIV Impact Assessment (PHIA) surveys in seven countries. The national prevalence of HIV infection in adolescent girls and young women aged 15-24 years, the percentage who were aware of their status, and among those persons who were aware, the percentage who had achieved viral suppression were calculated. The target for viral suppression among all persons with HIV infection is 73% (the product of 90% x 90% x 90%). Among all seven countries, the prevalence of HIV infection among adolescent girls and young women was 3.6%; among those in this group, 46.3% reported being aware of their HIV-positive status, and 45.0% were virally suppressed. Sustained efforts by national HIV and public health programs to diagnose HIV infection in adolescent girls and young women as early as possible to ensure rapid initiation of ART should help achieve epidemic control among adolescent girls and young women.

Burden of child mortality from malaria in high endemic areas: Results from the CHAMPS network using minimally invasive tissue sampling.

BACKGROUND: Malaria is a leading cause of childhood mortality worldwide. However, accurate estimates of malaria prevalence and causality among patients who die at the country level are lacking due to the limited specificity of diagnostic tools used to attribute etiologies. Accurate estimates are crucial for prioritizing interventions and resources aimed at reducing malaria-related mortality. METHODS: Seven Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance (CHAMPS) Network sites collected comprehensive data on stillbirths and children <5 years, using minimally invasive tissue sampling (MITS). A DeCoDe (Determination of Cause of Death) panel employed standardized protocols for assigning underlying, intermediate, and immediate causes of death, integrating sociodemographic, clinical, laboratory (including extensive microbiology, histopathology, and malaria testing), and verbal autopsy data. Analyses were conducted to ascertain the strength of evidence for cause of death (CoD), describe factors associated with malaria-related deaths, estimate malaria-specific mortality, and assess the proportion of preventable deaths. FINDINGS: Between December 3, 2016, and December 31, 2022, 2673 deaths underwent MITS and had a CoD attributed from four CHAMPS sites with at least 1 malaria-attributed death. No malaria-attributable deaths were documented among 891 stillbirths or 924 neonatal deaths, therefore this analysis concentrates on the remaining 858 deaths among children aged 1-59 months. Malaria was in the causal chain for 42.9% (126/294) of deaths from Sierra Leone, 31.4% (96/306) in Kenya, 18.2% (36/198) in Mozambique, 6.7% (4/60) in Mali, and 0.3% (1/292) in South Africa. Compared to non-malaria related deaths, malaria-related deaths skewed towards older infants and children (p < 0.001), with 71.0% among ages 12-59 months. Malaria was the sole infecting pathogen in 184 (70.2%) of malaria-attributed deaths, whereas bacterial and viral co-infections were identified in the causal pathway in 24·0% and 12.2% of cases, respectively. Malnutrition was found at a similar level in the causal pathway of both malaria (26.7%) and non-malaria (30.7%, p = 0.256) deaths. Less than two-thirds (164/262; 62.6%) of malaria deaths had received antimalarials prior to death. Nearly all (98·9%) malaria-related deaths were deemed preventable. INTERPRETATION: Malaria remains a significant cause of childhood mortality in the CHAMPS malaria-endemic sites. The high bacterial co-infection prevalence among malaria deaths underscores the potential benefits of antibiotics for severe malaria patients. Compared to non-malaria deaths, many of malaria-attributed deaths are preventable through accessible malaria control measures.

Identifying delays in healthcare seeking and provision: The Three Delays-in-Healthcare and mortality among infants and children aged 1-59 months.

Delays in illness recognition, healthcare seeking, and in the provision of appropriate clinical care are common in resource-limited settings. Our objective was to determine the frequency of delays in the "Three Delays-in-Healthcare", and factors associated with delays, among deceased infants and children in seven countries with high childhood mortality. We conducted a retrospective, descriptive study using data from verbal autopsies and medical records for infants and children aged 1-59 months who died between December 2016 and February 2022 in six sites in sub-Saharan Africa and one in South Asia (Bangladesh) and were enrolled in Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance (CHAMPS). Delays in 1) illness recognition in the home/decision to seek care, 2) transportation to healthcare facilities, and 3) the receipt of clinical care in healthcare facilities were categorized according to the "Three Delays-in-Healthcare". Comparisons in factors associated with delays were made using Chi-square testing. Information was available for 1,326 deaths among infants and under 5 children. The majority had at least one identified delay (n = 854, 64%). Waiting >72 hours after illness recognition to seek health care (n = 422, 32%) was the most common delay. Challenges in obtaining transportation occurred infrequently when seeking care (n = 51, 4%). In healthcare facilities, prescribed medications were sometimes unavailable (n = 102, 8%). Deceased children aged 12-59 months experienced more delay than infants aged 1-11 months (68% vs. 61%, P = 0.018). Delays in seeking clinical care were common among deceased infants and children. Additional study to assess the frequency of delays in seeking clinical care and its provision among children who survive is warranted.

Sudden death after a bite by a lowland swamp viper (Proatheris superciliaris) in Malawi: Dying of fright?

Proatheris superciliaris, the lowland swamp viper, has a limited distribution along lakeshores and rivers in Malawi, Southern Tanzania, and central Mozambique. Its venom is known to be procoagulant. Only five P. superciliaris bites have been reported, all inflicted by captive snakes, and none was fatal. Here we present a case of sudden death following a bite by Proatheris superciliaris in rural Malawi that cannot be attributed to envenoming. A healthy 32-year-old woman was planting rice in a flooded rice paddy field when she suddenly told her sister in a quiet voice that she had been bitten by a snake. She then collapsed face-upwards into the ankle-deep water. She remained motionless while her sister and uncle carried her out of the rice paddy onto dry land a few meters away. The victim did not regain consciousness. Her uncle heard one exhalation but no further breathing. The snake responsible was killed by a friend. Although the venom of this species can cause life-threatening coagulopathy, this woman's death occurred too rapidly to be attributable to envenoming. Only two explanations seem plausible: anaphylaxis, or vasovagal shock triggered by fear. In the present case, the victim died within minutes of the bite, closely observed by her anxious relatives, but showed no features of anaphylaxis. In Malawi, as in much of sub-Saharan Africa, many people are reportedly terrified of snakes, believing that bites by almost any species can cause rapid death. In this case, death occurred less than 2 min after a bite from Proatheris superciliaris. We believe that the cause of death was most likely a severe vasovagal attack, in response to the fear and pain of the snakebite that triggered vasodilatation, bradycardia, and hypotension leading to cardiac arrest.

Prevalence and Missed Cases of Respiratory Distress Syndrome Disease Amongst Neonatal Deaths Enrolled in the Kenya Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance Network (CHAMPS) Program Between 2017 and 2021.

Objectives. To describe RDS in neonatal deaths at the CHAMPS-Kenya site between 2017 and 2021. Methods. We included 165 neonatal deaths whose their Causes of death (COD) were determined by a panel of experts using data from post-mortem conducted through minimally invasive tissue specimen testing, clinical records, and verbal autopsy. Results. Twenty-six percent (43/165) of neonatal deaths were attributable to RDS. Most cases occurred in low birthweight and preterm neonates. From these cases, less than half of the hospitalizations were diagnosed with RDS before death, and essential diagnostic tests were not performed in most cases. Most cases received suboptimal levels of supplemental oxygen, and critical interventions like surfactant replacement therapy and mechanical ventilation were not adequately utilized when available. Conclusion. The study highlights the urgent need for improved diagnosis and management of RDS, emphasizing the importance of increasing clinical suspicion and enhancing training in its clinical management to reduce mortality rates.

Causes of Death Among Infants and Children in the Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance (CHAMPS) Network.

Importance: The number of deaths of children younger than 5 years has been steadily decreasing worldwide, from more than 17 million annual deaths in the 1970s to an estimated 5.3 million in 2019 (with 2.8 million deaths occurring in those aged 1-59 months [53% of all deaths in children aged <5 years]). More detailed characterization of childhood deaths could inform interventions to improve child survival. Objective: To describe causes of postneonatal child deaths across 7 mortality surveillance sentinel sites in Africa and Asia. Design, Setting, and Participants: The Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance (CHAMPS) Network conducts childhood mortality surveillance in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia using innovative postmortem minimally invasive tissue sampling (MITS). In this cross-sectional study, MITS was conducted in deceased children aged 1 to 59 months at 7 sites in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia from December 3, 2016, to December 3, 2020. Data analysis was conducted between October and November 2021. Main Outcomes and Measures: The expert panel attributed underlying, intermediate, and immediate conditions in the chain of events leading to death, based on histopathologic analysis, microbiological diagnostics, clinical data, and verbal autopsies. Results: In this study, MITS was performed in 632 deceased children (mean [SD] age at death, 1.3 [0.3] years; 342 [54.1%] male). The 6 most common underlying causes of death were malnutrition (104 [16.5%]), HIV (75 [11.9%]), malaria (71 [11.2%]), congenital birth defects (64 [10.1%]), lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs; 53 [8.4%]), and diarrheal diseases (46 [7.2%]). When considering immediate causes only, sepsis (191 [36.7%]) and LRTI (129 [24.8%]) were the 2 dominant causes. An infection was present in the causal chain in 549 of 632 deaths (86.9%); pathogens most frequently contributing to infectious deaths included Klebsiella pneumoniae (155 of 549 infectious deaths [28.2%]; 127 [81.9%] considered nosocomial), Plasmodium falciparum (122 of 549 [22.2%]), and Streptococcus pneumoniae (109 of 549 [19.9%]). Other organisms, such as cytomegalovirus (57 [10.4%]) and Acinetobacter baumannii (39 [7.1%]; 35 of 39 [89.7%] considered nosocomial), also played important roles. For the top underlying causes of death, the median number of conditions in the chain of events leading to death was 3 for malnutrition, 3 for HIV, 1 for malaria, 3 for congenital birth defects, and 1 for LRTI. Expert panels considered 494 of 632 deaths (78.2%) preventable and 26 of 632 deaths (4.1%) preventable under certain conditions. Conclusions and Relevance: In this cross-sectional study investigating causes of child mortality in the CHAMPS Network, results indicate that, in these high-mortality settings, infectious diseases continue to cause most deaths in infants and children, often in conjunction with malnutrition. These results also highlight opportunities for action to prevent deaths and reveal common interaction of various causes in the path toward death.

Adverse maternal, fetal, and newborn outcomes among pregnant women with SARS-CoV-2 infection: an individual participant data meta-analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Despite a growing body of research on the risks of SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy, there is continued controversy given heterogeneity in the quality and design of published studies. METHODS: We screened ongoing studies in our sequential, prospective meta-analysis. We pooled individual participant data to estimate the absolute and relative risk (RR) of adverse outcomes among pregnant women with SARS-CoV-2 infection, compared with confirmed negative pregnancies. We evaluated the risk of bias using a modified Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. RESULTS: We screened 137 studies and included 12 studies in 12 countries involving 13 136 pregnant women.Pregnant women with SARS-CoV-2 infection-as compared with uninfected pregnant women-were at significantly increased risk of maternal mortality (10 studies; n=1490; RR 7.68, 95% CI 1.70 to 34.61); admission to intensive care unit (8 studies; n=6660; RR 3.81, 95% CI 2.03 to 7.17); receiving mechanical ventilation (7 studies; n=4887; RR 15.23, 95% CI 4.32 to 53.71); receiving any critical care (7 studies; n=4735; RR 5.48, 95% CI 2.57 to 11.72); and being diagnosed with pneumonia (6 studies; n=4573; RR 23.46, 95% CI 3.03 to 181.39) and thromboembolic disease (8 studies; n=5146; RR 5.50, 95% CI 1.12 to 27.12).Neonates born to women with SARS-CoV-2 infection were more likely to be admitted to a neonatal care unit after birth (7 studies; n=7637; RR 1.86, 95% CI 1.12 to 3.08); be born preterm (7 studies; n=6233; RR 1.71, 95% CI 1.28 to 2.29) or moderately preterm (7 studies; n=6071; RR 2.92, 95% CI 1.88 to 4.54); and to be born low birth weight (12 studies; n=11 930; RR 1.19, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.40). Infection was not linked to stillbirth. Studies were generally at low or moderate risk of bias. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis indicates that SARS-CoV-2 infection at any time during pregnancy increases the risk of maternal death, severe maternal morbidities and neonatal morbidity, but not stillbirth or intrauterine growth restriction. As more data become available, we will update these findings per the published protocol.

Provider adherence to clinical care recommendations for infants and children who died in seven low- and middle-income countries in the Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance (CHAMPS) network.

Background: Most childhood deaths globally are considered preventable through high-quality clinical care, which includes adherence to clinical care recommendations. Our objective was to describe adherence to World Health Organization recommendations for the management of leading causes of death among children. Methods: We conducted a retrospective, descriptive study examining clinical data for children aged 1-59 months who were hospitalized and died in a Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance (CHAMPS) catchment, December 2016-June 2021. Catchment areas included: Baliakandi and Faridpur, Bangladesh; Kersa, Haramaya, and Harar, Ethiopia; Kisumu and Siaya, Kenya; Bamako, Mali; Manhiça and Quelimane, Mozambique; Makeni, Sierra Leone; Soweto, South Africa. We reviewed medical records of those who died from lower respiratory tract infections, sepsis, malnutrition, malaria, and diarrheal diseases to determine the proportion who received recommended treatments and compared adherence by hospitalization duration. Findings: CHAMPS enrolled 460 hospitalized children who died from the leading causes (median age 12 months, 53.0% male). Median hospital admission was 31 h. There were 51.0% (n = 127/249) of children who died from lower respiratory tract infections received supplemental oxygen. Administration of intravenous fluids for sepsis (15.9%, n = 36/226) and supplemental feeds for malnutrition (14.0%, n = 18/129) were uncommon. There were 51.4% (n = 55/107) of those who died from malaria received antimalarials. Of the 80 children who died from diarrheal diseases, 76.2% received intravenous fluids. Those admitted for ≥24 h more commonly received antibiotics for lower respiratory tract infections and sepsis, supplemental feeds for malnutrition, and intravenous fluids for sepsis than those admitted <24 h. Interpretation: Provision of recommended clinical care for leading causes of death among young children was suboptimal. Further studies are needed to understand the reasons for deficits in clinical care recommendation adherence. Funding: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

Causes of death in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected children aged under-five years in western Kenya.

OBJECTIVES: Describe the causes of death among infants and children less than 5 years stratified by HIV status. DESIGN: Cross-sectional analysis of causes of death ascertained through minimally invasive tissue sampling (MITS) in the Kenya Child Health and Mortality Prevention Surveillance site. METHODS: We included decedents aged 28 days to less than 5 years, whose death was reported within 36 h, underwent MITS, and had HIV test results and causes of death determined. MITS specimens were tested using Taqman Array Cards, culture, cytology, histopathology and immunohistochemistry and HIV PCR. A panel evaluated epidemiologic, clinical, verbal autopsy and laboratory data to assign causes of death using ICD-10 guidelines. Causes of death and etiological agents were stratified by HIV status. RESULTS: Of 176 included decedents, 14% (n = 25) were HIV-infected, median viral load was 112 205 copies/ml [interquartile range (IQR) = 9349-2 670 143). HIV-disease (96%; n = 24) and malnutrition (23%; n = 34) were the leading underlying causes of death in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected decedents, respectively. Malnutrition was more frequent in the causal chain of HIV-infected (56%; n = 14) than HIV-uninfected decedents (31%; n = 49) (P value = 0.03). Viral pneumonia was twice as common in HIV-infected (50%; n = 9) than HIV-uninfected decedents (22%; n = 7) (P value = 0.04). CONCLUSION: Nearly all HIV-infected decedents' underlying cause of death was HIV disease, which was associated with malnutrition. Our findings underscore the need for strengthening early identification and management of HIV-infected children. Prevention, early diagnosis and treatment of malnutrition could be instrumental in improving the survival of HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected children.