Sepsis sensitizes behavioural amphetamine responses while inducing inflammatory and neurotrophic vulnerability in the cecal ligation and puncture model.

The present study aimed to evaluate if sepsis sensitizes behavioural and biochemical responses induced by m-amphetamine. For this, Wistar rats were submitted to the cecal ligation and puncture. After 30 days of cecal ligation and puncture procedure, the animals were submitted to a single intraperitoneal injection of saline or m-amphetamine (.25, .50, or 1.0 mg/kg). Locomotor behaviour was assessed 2 h after the administration. Interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-6, IL-10, tumour necrosis factor-α, dopamine-cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein of 32,000 kDa (DARPP-32) and neuronal calcium sensor (NCS-1) levels were evaluated in the frontal cortex, hippocampus and striatum. Also, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), neuronal growth factor and glial-derived neurotrophic factor levels were assessed in the hippocampus. M-amphetamine alone (.25 and 1.0 mg/kg) increased rats' locomotion and exploratory behaviour compared with the Sham + Sal. Animals from the cecal ligation and puncture + m-amphetamine (.5 and/or 1.0 mg/kg) group showed an increase in locomotion, exploratory and risk-like behaviour when compared with the Sham + Saline group and with its respective Sham groups. Cecal ligation and puncture increased interleukin levels compared with the Sham + Sal. However, cecal ligation and puncture animals that received m-amphetamine (1 mg/kg) increased even more, these inflammatory parameters compared with the Sham + Sal and the cecal ligation and puncture + saline group. M-amphetamine at lower doses increased neurotrophic factors, but higher doses decreased these parameters in the brain of cecal ligation and puncture rats. M-amphetamine dose-dependently increased DARPP-32 and NCS-1 levels in cecal ligation and puncture rats in some structures. In conclusion, these results demonstrate that sepsis sensitizes behavioural amphetamine responses while inducing inflammatory and neurotrophic vulnerability in the cecal ligation and puncture model.

Anti-manic effect of deep brain stimulation of the ventral tegmental area in an animal model of mania induced by methamphetamine.

BACKGROUND: Treatment of refractory bipolar disorder (BD) is extremely challenging. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) holds promise as an effective treatment intervention. However, we still understand very little about the mechanisms of DBS and its application on BD. AIM: The present study aimed to investigate the behavioural and neurochemical effects of ventral tegmental area (VTA) DBS in an animal model of mania induced by methamphetamine (m-amph). METHODS: Wistar rats were given 14 days of m-amph injections, and on the last day, animals were submitted to 20 min of VTA DBS in two different patterns: intermittent low-frequency stimulation (LFS) or continuous high-frequency stimulation (HFS). Immediately after DBS, manic-like behaviour and nucleus accumbens (NAc) phasic dopamine (DA) release were evaluated in different groups of animals through open-field tests and fast-scan cyclic voltammetry. Levels of NAc dopaminergic markers were evaluated by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: M-amph induced hyperlocomotion in the animals and both DBS parameters reversed this alteration. M-amph increased DA reuptake time post-sham compared to baseline levels, and both LFS and HFS were able to block this alteration. LFS was also able to reduce phasic DA release when compared to baseline. LFS was able to increase dopamine transporter (DAT) expression in the NAc. CONCLUSION: These results demonstrate that both VTA LFS and HFS DBS exert anti-manic effects and modulation of DA dynamics in the NAc. More specifically the increase in DA reuptake driven by increased DAT expression may serve as a potential mechanism by which VTA DBS exerts its anti-manic effects.

Role of epigenetic regulatory enzymes in animal models of mania induced by amphetamine and paradoxical sleep deprivation.

It is known that bipolar disorder has a multifactorial aetiology where the interaction between genetic and environmental factors is responsible for its development. Because of this, epigenetics has been largely studied in psychiatric disorders. The present study aims to evaluate the effects of histone deacetylase inhibitors on epigenetic enzyme alterations in rats or mice submitted to animal models of mania induced by dextro-amphetamine or sleep deprivation, respectively. Adult male Wistar rats were subjected to 14 days of dextro-amphetamine administration, and from the eighth to the fourteenth day, the animals were treated with valproate and sodium butyrate in addition to dextro-amphetamine injections. Adult C57BL/6 mice received 7 days of valproate or sodium butyrate administration, being sleep deprived at the last 36 hr of the protocol. Locomotor and exploratory activities of rats and mice were evaluated in the open-field test, and histone deacetylase, DNA methyltransferase, and histone acetyltransferase activities were assessed in the frontal cortex, hippocampus, and striatum. Dextro-amphetamine and sleep deprivation induced hyperactivity and increased histone deacetylase and DNA methyltransferase activities in the animal's brain. Valproate and sodium butyrate were able to reverse hyperlocomotion induced by both animal models, as well as the alterations on histone deacetylase and DNA methyltransferase activities. There was a positive correlation between enzyme activities and number of crossings for both models. Histone deacetylase and DNA methyltransferase activities also presented a positive correlation between theirselves. These results suggest that epigenetics can play an important role in BD pathophysiology as well as in its treatment.

Alterations in plasma kynurenine pathway metabolites in children and adolescents with bipolar disorder and unaffected offspring of bipolar parents: A preliminary study.

BACKGROUND: There has been growing scientific evidence in recent years that bipolar disorder (BD) is associated with alterations in the kynurenine (KYN) pathway. However, many of these studies have been limited by their focus on adults. Thus, this preliminary study investigated differences in the peripheral levels of KYN metabolites in children and adolescents with BD, unaffected offspring of parents with BD, and healthy controls (HCs). METHODS: Plasma samples were collected from 49 youths with BD, 19 bipolar offspring, and 31 HCs. Tryptophan (TRP), KYN, and kynurenic acid (KYNA) were separated using electrospray ionization. RESULTS: One-Way ANCOVA after controlling for age, gender, race, BMI-for-age, and smoking status showed that BD had lower levels of KYN, while unaffected high-risk offspring subjects had lower levels of TRP, KYN, and KYNA when compared to HCs. Moreover, we found that KYN, KYN/TRP, and KYNA/KYN levels predicted the severity of depressive symptoms, while the YMRS score was not associated with any metabolite. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, this preliminary study has shown that KYN metabolites are decreased in both affected and unaffected subjects, strengthening the idea that the KYN pathway might underlie the familial risk of BD shown by high-risk offspring individuals. However, longitudinal studies are needed to examine whether the alterations observed in this study represent early markers of risk for later developing BD.

Administration of branched-chain amino acids alters epigenetic regulatory enzymes in an animal model of Maple Syrup Urine Disease.

Maple Syrup Urine Disease (MSUD) is an autosomal recessive inherited disorder that affects the activity of the branched-chainα-keto acid dehydrogenase complex (BCDK). This deficiency on BCDK complex results in the accumulation of branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) leucine, isoleucine, valine, and their corresponding α-keto acids. Epigenetic changes can negatively affect the metabolism of BCAA. These changes are catalyzed by the epigenetic regulatory enzymes, e.g., DNA methyltransferase (DNMT), histone deacetylases (HDAC), and histone acetyltransferases (HAT). However, the impacts of BCAA administration on the activity of epigenetic regulatory enzymes in the brain of MSUD patients are still unknown. In this study, we aimed to demonstrate the impact of BCAA administration on the activity of DNMT, HDAC, and HAT in the brain structures of infant rats, an animal model of MSUD. For that, we administered a BCAA pool to infant rats for 21 days. We demonstrated that BCAA administration significantly increased the DNMT and HDAC activities in the hippocampus and striatum, but not in the cerebral cortex of MSUD infant rats. A positive correlation was observed between HDAC and DNMT activities in the hippocampus and striatum of animals exposed to BCAA injections. Our results showed that the BCAA administration could modulate epigenetic regulatory enzymes, mainly DNMT and HDAC, in the brains of infant rats. Therefore, we suggest that the increase in the activity of DNMT and HDAC in the hippocampus and striatum could partially explain the neurological impairments presented in animal models of MSUD.

Accelerated hippocampal biological aging in bipolar disorder.

OBJECTIVES: Evidence suggests accelerated aging mechanisms in bipolar disorder (BD), including DNA methylation (DNAm) aging in blood. However, it is unknown whether such mechanisms are also evident in the brain, in particular in association with other biological clocks. To investigate this, we interrogated genome-wide DNAm in postmortem hippocampus from 32 BD-I patients and 32 non-psychiatric controls group-matched for age and sex from the NIMH Human Brain Collection Core. METHODS: DNAm age and epigenetic aging acceleration were estimated using the Horvath method. Telomere length (TL) and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number were quantified by real-time PCR. Between-group differences were assessed by linear regression and univariate general linear models with age, sex, race, postmortem interval, tissue pH, smoking, and body mass index included as co-variates. RESULTS: Groups did not differ for epigenetic aging acceleration when considering the entire sample. However, after splitting the sample by the median age, an epigenetic aging acceleration was detected in patients compared to controls among older subjects (P = .042). While TL did not differ between groups, a reduction in mtDNA copy number was observed in patients compared to controls (P = .047). In addition, significant correlations were observed between epigenetic aging acceleration and TL (r = -.337, P = .006), as well as between TL and mtDNA copy number (r = .274, P = .028). CONCLUSIONS: Hippocampal aging may underlie neurocognitive dysfunctions observed in BD patients. Moreover, our results suggest a complex cross-talk between biological clocks in hippocampus that may underlie clinical manifestations of premature aging in BD.

Evaluation of the arachidonic acid pathway in bipolar disorder: a systematic review.

Bipolar disorder (BD) is a mood psychiatric disorder described by changes between depressive, hypomanic, or manic episodes. The aimed of the present study was evaluated possible changes in the AA pathway in BD through a systematic review of observational studies. A search in the electronic databases was proceeded, on Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, Google Scholar and the British Library for studies published until August 2020. A search strategy was developed using the terms: "Bipolar Disorder" and "Phospholipase A2" or "Arachidonic Acids" or "Cyclooxygenase 2" or "Prostaglandins E" as text words and Medical Subject Headings (i.e., MeSH and EMTREE). Seven primary studies were included in the systematic review, with a total of 246 BD patients, 20 depression patients, and 425 heathy controls (HC). The studies showed contradictory results in the AA and PLA2, no primary articles with COX and PGE2 assessments were included in this review. According to the Newcastle-Ottawa quality score scale (NOS), our systematic review presented high quality. The investigation of the inflammatory pathway of AA still needs further investigation and evidence, given the growing number of studies suggesting the efficacy of anti-inflammatory drugs as adjunctive therapy in the pharmacological treatment of BD.

Efficacy of folic acid as an adjunct to lithium therapy on manic-like behaviors, oxidative stress and inflammatory parameters in an animal model of mania.

Evaluate the efficacy of folic acid (FA) as a therapeutic adjunct to lithium (Li) on the manic-like behaviors as well as parameters of oxidative stress and inflammation in an animal model of mania induced by m-amphetamine (m-AMPH). Wistar rats first received m-AMPH or saline (NaCl 0.9%, Sal) for 14 days. Between the 8th and 14th day, rats were treated with water, Li, FA or a combination of thereof drugs (Li + FA). Manic-like behaviors were assessed in the open-field test. Oxidative stress and inflammation parameters were assessed in the frontal cortex, striatum, and hippocampus. Administration of m-AMPH in rats significantly enhanced the exploratory and locomotor behaviors, as well as the risk-taking and stereotypic behaviors. Li + FA reversed these behavioral alterations elicited by m-AMPH. Administration of this psychostimulant also increased oxidative damage to lipids and proteins, whereas Li + FA reversed these oxidative damages. m-AMPH also induced an increase in the glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity and a decrease in the glutathione reductase (GR) activity. Li + FA reversed the alteration in GR activity, but not in GPx activity. In addition, m-AMPH increased the IL-1ß and TNF-α levels in the rat brain; Li + FA combined therapy reversed the alterations on these inflammatory parameters. FA administration per se reduced the increased TNF-α content induced by m-AMPH. Present study provides evidence that FA is effective as an adjunct to Li standard therapy on manic-like behaviors, oxidative stress and inflammatory parameters in a model of mania induced by m-AMPH.

Resveratrol protects the brain against oxidative damage in a dopaminergic animal model of mania.

The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of resveratrol on behavior and oxidative stress parameters in the brain of rats submitted to the animal model of mania induced by m-AMPH. In the first model (reversal treatment), rats received intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of saline or m-AMPH (1 mg/kg body weight) once a day for 14 days, and from the 8th to the 14th day, they were orally treated with water or resveratrol (15 mg/kg), once a day. In the second model (maintenance treatment), rats were orally pretreated with water or resveratrol (15 mg/kg) once a day, and from the 8th to the 14th day, they received saline or m-AMPH i.p., once a day. Locomotor and exploratory activities were assessed in the open-field test. Oxidative and nitrosative damage parameters to lipid and proteins were evaluated by TBARS, 4-HNE, carbonyl, and 3-nitrotyrosine in the brain submitted to the experimental models. m-AMPH administration increased the locomotor and exploratory activities; resveratrol was not able to reverse or prevent these manic-like behaviors. Additionally, m-AMPH increased the lipid and protein oxidation and nitrosylation in the frontal cortex, hippocampus, and striatum of rats. However, resveratrol prevented and reversed the oxidative and nitrosative damage to proteins and lipids in all cerebral areas assessed. Since oxidative stress plays an important role in BD pathophysiology, supplementation of resveratrol in BD patients could be regarded as a possible adjunctive treatment with mood stabilizers.

Lithium and Tamoxifen Modulate Behavior and Protein Kinase C Activity in the Animal Model of Mania Induced by Ouabain.

Background: The intracerebroventricular injection of ouabain, a specific inhibitor of the Na+/K+-adenosine-triphosphatase (Na+/K+-ATPase) enzyme, induces hyperactivity in rats in a putative animal model of mania. Several evidences have suggested that the protein kinase C signaling pathway is involved in bipolar disorder. In addition, it is known that protein kinase C inhibitors, such as lithium and tamoxifen, are effective in treating acute mania. Methods: In the present study, we investigated the effects of lithium and tamoxifen on the protein kinase C signaling pathway in the frontal cortex and hippocampus of rats submitted to the animal model of mania induced by ouabain. We showed that ouabain induced hyperlocomotion in the rats. Results: Ouabain increased the protein kinase C activity and the protein kinase C and MARCKS phosphorylation in frontal cortex and hippocampus of rats. Lithium and tamoxifen reversed the behavioral and protein kinase C pathway changes induced by ouabain. These findings indicate that the Na+/K+-ATPase inhibition can lead to protein kinase C alteration. Conclusions: The present study showed that lithium and tamoxifen modulate changes in the behavior and protein kinase C signalling pathway alterations induced by ouabain, underlining the need for more studies of protein kinase C as a possible target for treatment of bipolar disorder.

Lithium ameliorates sleep deprivation-induced mania-like behavior, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis alterations, oxidative stress and elevations of cytokine concentrations in the brain and serum of mice.

OBJECTIVES: The goal of the present study was to investigate the effects of lithium administration on behavior, oxidative stress parameters and cytokine levels in the periphery and brain of mice subjected to an animal model of mania induced by paradoxical sleep deprivation (PSD). METHODS: Male C57 mice were treated with saline or lithium for 7 days. The sleep deprivation protocol started on the 5th day during for the last 36 hours of the treatment period. Immediately after the sleep deprivation protocol, animals locomotor activity was evaluated and serum and brain samples was extracted to evaluation of corticosterone and adrenocorticotropic hormone circulating levels, oxidative stress parameters and citokynes levels. RESULTS: The results showed that PSD induced hyperactivity in mice, which is considered a mania-like behavior. PSD increased lipid peroxidation and oxidative damage to DNA, as well as causing alterations to antioxidant enzymes in the frontal cortex, hippocampus and serum of mice. In addition, PSD increased the levels of cytokines in the brains of mice. Treatment with lithium prevented the mania-like behavior, oxidative damage and cytokine alterations induced by PSD. CONCLUSIONS: Improving our understanding of oxidative damage in biomolecules, antioxidant mechanisms and the inflammatory system - alterations presented in the animal models of mania - is important in helping us to improve our knowledge concerning the pathophysiology of BD, and the mechanisms of action employed by mood stabilizers.

Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation decreases DNA damage in brain of rats subjected to a chemically induced chronic model of Tyrosinemia type II.

Tyrosinemia type II is an inborn error of metabolism caused by a mutation in a gene encoding the enzyme tyrosine aminotransferase leading to an accumulation of tyrosine in the body, and is associated with neurologic and development difficulties in numerous patients. Because the accumulation of tyrosine promotes oxidative stress and DNA damage, the main aim of this study was to investigate the possible antioxidant and neuroprotective effects of omega-3 treatment in a chemically-induced model of Tyrosinemia type II in hippocampus, striatum and cerebral cortex of rats. Our results showed chronic administration of L-tyrosine increased the frequency and the index of DNA damage, as well as the 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) levels in the hippocampus, striatum and cerebral cortex. Moreover, omega-3 fatty acid treatment totally prevented increased DNA damage in the striatum and hippocampus, and partially prevented in the cerebral cortex, whereas the increase in 8-OHdG levels was totally prevented by omega-3 fatty acid treatment in hippocampus, striatum and cerebral cortex. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that the main accumulating metabolite in Tyrosinemia type II induce DNA damage in hippocampus, striatum and cerebral cortex, possibly mediated by free radical production, and the supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids was able to prevent this damage, suggesting that could be involved in the prevention of oxidative damage to DNA in this disease. Thus, omega-3 fatty acids supplementation to Tyrosinemia type II patients may represent a new therapeutic approach and a possible adjuvant to the curren t treatment of this disease.

Prevention of Memory Impairment and Neurotrophic Factors Increased by Lithium in Wistar Rats Submitted to Pneumococcal Meningitis Model.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of lithium on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), nerve growth factor (NGF), and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) expression in the hippocampus and on memory in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. The mood-stabilizer lithium is known as a neuroprotective agent with many effects on the brain. In this study, animals received either artificial cerebrospinal fluid or Streptococcus pneumoniae suspension at a concentration of 5 × 109 CFU/mL. Eighteen hours after induction, all animals received ceftriaxone. The animals received saline or lithium (47.5 mg/kg) or tamoxifen (1 mg/kg) as adjuvant treatment, and they were separated into six groups: control/saline, control/lithium, control/tamoxifen, meningitis/saline, meningitis/lithium, and meningitis/tamoxifen. Ten days after meningitis induction, animals were subjected to open-field habituation and the step-down inhibitory avoidance tasks. Immediately after these tasks, the animals were killed and their hippocampus was removed to evaluate the expression of BDNF, NGF, and GDNF. In the meningitis group, treatment with lithium and tamoxifen resulted in improvement in memory. Meningitis group showed decreased expression of BDNF and GDNF in the hippocampus while lithium reestablished the neurotrophin expression. Lithium was able to prevent memory impairment and reestablishes hippocampal neurotrophin expression in experimental pneumococcal meningitis.

Depression-Like Adult Behaviors may be a Long-Term Result of Experimental Pneumococcal Meningitis in Wistar Rats Infants.

Pneumococcal meningitis is a life-threatening infection of the central nervous system (CNS) with a high mortality rate. In addition to causing severe neurological sequelae infectious diseases of the CNS can play a significant role in the pathogenesis of neuropsychiatric disorders. In this study infant Wistar rats, postnatal day 11, received intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) either artificial cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) or a Streptococcus pneumoniae suspension to a concentration of 1 × 106 colony-forming units (CFU). 18 h later animals received antibiotic treatment as usual during 7 days. On postnatal day 46, the animals received imipramine intraperitoneal (i.p.) or sterile NaCl during 14 days (postnatal days 46-60). Then, on postnatal days 59-60 we evaluated the consumption of sweet food (an index of anhedonia). On postnatal day 60 the animals were submitted to the forced swimming task. 60 min after this task the animals were decapitated and the blood was collected to evaluate adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and corticosterone. Immediately after blood collection the hippocampus was removed to evaluate brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF). The meningitis group exhibited depressive-like behavior as evidenced by decreased sucrose intake and increased immobility time in the forced swimming task, and BDNF and GDNF decrease in the hippocampus. ACTH levels were increased in the blood. Imipramine treatment reversed depressive-like behaviors, re-established hippocampal BDNF and GDNF expression, and normalized ACTH levels in the blood. Here we demonstrate that meningitis during early life period can trigger depressive-like behavior in adult life of rats.

Effects of Mood Stabilizers on Brain Energy Metabolism in Mice Submitted to an Animal Model of Mania Induced by Paradoxical Sleep Deprivation.

There is a body of evidence suggesting that mitochondrial dysfunction is involved in bipolar disorder (BD) pathogenesis. Studies suggest that abnormalities in circadian cycles are involved in the pathophysiology of affective disorders; paradoxical sleep deprivation (PSD) induces hyperlocomotion in mice. Thus, the present study aims to investigate the effects of lithium (Li) and valproate (VPA) in an animal model of mania induced by PSD for 96 h. PSD increased exploratory activity, and mood stabilizers prevented PSD-induced behavioral effects. PSD also induced a significant decrease in the activity of complex II-III in hippocampus and striatum; complex IV activity was decreased in prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus, striatum and cerebral cortex. Additionally, VPA administration was able to prevent PSD-induced inhibition of complex II-III and IV activities in prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus, striatum and cerebral cortex, whereas Li administration prevented PSD-induced inhibition only in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. Regarding the enzymes of Krebs cycle, only citrate synthase activity was increased by PSD in prefrontal cortex. We also found a similar effect in creatine kinase, an important enzyme that acts in the buffering of ATP levels in brain; its activity was increased in prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and cerebral cortex. These results are consistent with the connection of mitochondrial dysfunction and hyperactivity in BD and suggest that the present model fulfills adequate face, construct and predictive validity as an animal model of mania.

Lithium modulates the production of peripheral and cerebral cytokines in an animal model of mania induced by dextroamphetamine.

OBJECTIVES: Several recent studies have suggested that the physiopathology of bipolar disorder (BD) is related to immune system alterations and inflammation. Lithium (Li) is a mood stabilizer that is considered the first-line treatment for this mood disorder. The goal of the present study was to investigate the effects of Li administration on behavior and cytokine levels [interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)] in the periphery and brains of rats subjected to an animal model of mania induced by amphetamine (d-AMPH). METHODS: Male Wistar rats were treated with d-AMPH or saline (Sal) for 14 days; on Day 8 of treatment, the rats were administered Li or Sal for the final seven days. Cytokine (IL-1ß, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α) levels were evaluated in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), serum, frontal cortex, striatum, and hippocampus. RESULTS: The present study showed that d-AMPH induced hyperactivity in rats (p < 0.001), and Li treatment reversed this behavioral alteration (p < 0.001). In addition, d-AMPH increased the levels of IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α in the frontal cortex (p < 0.001), striatum (p < 0.001), and serum (p < 0.001), and treatment with Li reversed these cytokine alterations (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Li modulates peripheral and cerebral cytokine production in an animal model of mania induced by d-AMPH, suggesting that its action on the inflammatory system may contribute to its therapeutic efficacy.

Effects of palatable cafeteria diet on cognitive and noncognitive behaviors and brain neurotrophins' levels in mice.

The consumption of palatable high-fat and high-sugar foods have increased dramatically over the past years. Overconsumption of calorically dense food contributes to increasing rates of overweight and obesity that are associated with psychiatry disorders, in particular mood and anxiety disorders. This study evaluated the impact of palatable cafeteria diet (CAF) intake on cognitive and noncognitive behaviors, as well as identified factors related to these behaviors through an evaluation of brain neurotrophic factor (BDNF, NGF, and GDNF) levels in hippocampus of mice. Male Swiss mice received two different diets during 13 weeks: standard chow (STA) and highly CAF. Posteriorly, forced swimming test (FST), tail suspension test (TST), plus-maze test (PMT), open-field tests (OFT), and object recognition task (ORT) were utilized as behavioral tests. In addition, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), and nerve growth factor (NGF) neurotrophins' levels were evaluated in hippocampus of mice. The results demonstrated that mice from the CAF group showed a decrease in the immobility time in the FST and TST. Besides, mice in the CAF group spent more time in the open arms of the PMT. No significant differences were observed in the cognitive behaviors, which were evaluated in the OFT and ORT. In addition, the CAF group showed that BDNF and NGF protein levels increased in the hippocampus of mice. In conclusion, our data suggest that the consumption of palatable high-fat and high-sugar foods induces antidepressant- and anxiolytic-like behaviors, which can be related with BDNF and NGF expression increases in hippocampus of mice in the CAF group.

Effects of chronic administration of fenproporex on cognitive and non-cognitive behaviors.

Fenproporex (Fen) is an amphetamine-based anorectic; amphetamine use causes a broad range of severe cognitive deficits and anxiogenic-like effects. In this study we evaluated pharmacological effects of the chronic administration of Fen on cognitive and non-cognitive behaviors. Male adult Wistar rats received intraperitoneal administration of vehicle (control group) or Fen (6.25, 12.5 or 25 mg/kg) for 14 days; the animals were then subjected to habituation and object recognition tasks in open-field apparatus, and elevated plus-maze task. The administration of Fen (12.5 and 25 mg/kg) impaired habituation during the second exposure to the habituation task. In addition, the same doses of Fen also impaired the performance in object recognition task. In elevated plus-maze task, the administration of Fen (in all doses tested) induced anxiogenic-like effects in rats. Our results suggest that chronic Fen administration alters memory and induces anxiogenic-like effects in rats.

Acute administration of fenproporex increased acetylcholinesterase activity in brain of young rats.

Fenproporex is the second most commonly amphetamine-based anorectic consumed worldwide; this drug is rapidly converted into amphetamine, in vivo, and acts by increasing dopamine levels in the synaptic cleft. Considering that fenproporex effects on the central nervous system are still poorly known and that acetylcholinesterase is a regulatory enzyme which is involved in cholinergic synapses and may indirectly modulate the release of dopamine, the present study investigated the effects of acute administration of fenproporex on acetylcholinesterase activity in brain of young rats. Young male Wistar rats received a single injection of fenproporex (6.25, 12.5 or 25mg/kg i.p.) or vehicle (2% Tween 80). Two hours after the injection, the rats were killed by decapitation and the brain was removed for evaluation of acetylcholinesterase activity. Results showed that fenproporex administration increased acetylcholinesterase activity in the hippocampus and posterior cortex, whereas in the prefrontal cortex, striatum and cerebellum the enzyme activity was not altered. In conclusion, in the present study we demonstrated that acute administration of fenproporex exerts an effect in the cholinergic system causing an increase in the activity of acetylcholinesterase in a dose-dependent manner in the hippocampus and posterior cortex. Thus, we suggest that the imbalance in cholinergic homeostasis could be considered as an important pathophysiological mechanism underlying the brain damage observed in patients who use amphetamines such as fenproporex.