Derivation of environmental quality standards for free cyanide incorporating censored data into species sensitivity distributions.

Free cyanide is considered to be the most toxic form of cyanides to aquatic life. Due to its broad range of uses and subsequent potential widespread emissions to surface water, the environmental effects of free cyanide have been extensively researched. Regulatory bodies have proposed water quality standards for free cyanide, but these are regularly debated and implementation has been inconsistent due to monitoring challenges. The aim of the present study was therefore to derive new environmental quality standards (EQS) for free cyanide according to the Water Framework Directive (WFD). Ecotoxicity data from previous derivations and an additional literature search were gathered and individually (re) evaluated on reliability. The pooled acute ecotoxicity dataset consisted of reliable results for 35 species, distributed over 8 taxonomic groups. The pooled chronic ecotoxicity dataset consisted of results for 13 species, distributed over 7 taxonomic groups. WFD criteria for deriving a species sensitivity distribution (SSD) were met, if censored data points were included. Using the R-package ETX 3.0, an SSD including censored data was constructed and acute and chronic HC5 values of 17 and 0.66 µg/L, respectively, were derived. Comparisons were made with alternative SSDs constructed by transforming or discarding the censored data. Applying a default assessment factor (AF) of 10 to the HC5 from the acute SSD resulted in a MAC-EQS of 1.7 µg CN/L for freshwater and marine water. Careful consideration was given to addressing the uncertainty around the chronic HC5 value for the selection of an AF of 3, resulting in an AA-EQS of 0.22 µg CN-/L for freshwater and 0.044 µg CN-/L for marine water by applying an additional AF of 5. It is concluded that the current environmental quality standards for free cyanide are the first to be derived according to the WFD guidance, using only reliable data and including censored values.

Rewetting does not return drained fen peatlands to their old selves.

Peatlands have been drained for land use for a long time and on a large scale, turning them from carbon and nutrient sinks into respective sources, diminishing water regulation capacity, causing surface height loss and destroying biodiversity. Over the last decades, drained peatlands have been rewetted for biodiversity restoration and, as it strongly decreases greenhouse gas emissions, also for climate protection. We quantify restoration success by comparing 320 rewetted fen peatland sites to 243 near-natural peatland sites of similar origin across temperate Europe, all set into perspective by 10k additional European fen vegetation plots. Results imply that rewetting of drained fen peatlands induces the establishment of tall, graminoid wetland plants (helophytisation) and long-lasting differences to pre-drainage biodiversity (vegetation), ecosystem functioning (geochemistry, hydrology), and land cover characteristics (spectral temporal metrics). The Paris Agreement entails the rewetting of 500,000 km2 of drained peatlands worldwide until 2050-2070. A better understanding of the resulting locally novel ecosystems is required to improve planning and implementation of peatland rewetting and subsequent management.

A framework to bridge scales in distribution modeling of soil microbiota.

Creating accurate habitat suitability and distribution models (HSDMs) for soil microbiota is far more challenging than for aboveground organism groups. In this perspective paper, we propose a conceptual framework that addresses several of the critical issues holding back further applications. Most importantly, we tackle the mismatch between the broadscale, long-term averages of environmental variables traditionally used, and the environment as experienced by soil microbiota themselves. We suggest using nested sampling designs across environmental gradients and objectively integrating spatially hierarchic heterogeneity as covariates in HSDMs. Second, to incorporate the crucial role of taxa co-occurrence as driver of soil microbial distributions, we promote the use of joint species distribution models, a class of models that jointly analyze multiple species' distributions, quantifying both species-specific environmental responses (i.e. the environmental niche) and covariance among species (i.e. biotic interactions). Our approach allows incorporating the environmental niche and its associated distribution across multiple spatial scales. The proposed framework facilitates the inclusion of the true relationships between soil organisms and their abiotic and biotic environments in distribution models, which is crucial to improve predictions of soil microbial redistributions as a result of global change.

AHTN and HHCB show weak estrogenic--but no uterotrophic activity.

The ubiquitous presence of the polycyclic musks AHTN (6-acetyl-1,1,2,4,4,7-hexamethyltetraline) and HHCB (1,2,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8-hexamethylcyclopenta-gamma-2-b enzopyreen) in surface waters and their identification in human milk fat together with their polycyclic nature, which makes them potential candidates for interference with estrogen receptors, prompted us to assess these compounds for their potential estrogenic effects. We therefore investigated the effects of AHTN and HHCB in ERalpha- and ERbeta-dependent gene transcription assays with Human Embryonal Kidney 293 (HEK293) cells, which have proven to be very suitable to estimate the estrogenic activity of compounds with low binding activity (Kuiper, G.G., Lemmen, J.G., Carlsson, B., Corton, J.C., Safe, S.H., Van der Saag, P.T., Van der Burg, B., Gustafsson, J.A., 1998. Interaction of estrogenic chemicals and phytoestrogens with estrogen receptor beta. Endocrinology 139, 4252-4264). Both AHTN and HHCB were found to induce a slight but dose-dependent stimulation of transcriptional activity in the transiently ERalpha transfected HEK293 cells. This weak estrogenic response was not observed in the ERbeta transiently transfected cells. However, these cells were less responsive to estradiol than the ERalpha transfected HEK293 cells. Also, no significant increase in transcriptional activity was observed in HEK293 cell lines, permanently expressing the same estrogen-responsive reporter gene construct and either ERalpha or ERbeta. In the classical uterine weight assay performed in juvenile Balb/c mice, no uterotrophic activity of AHTN and HHCB was noted at relatively high dietary exposure levels up to 50 and 300 ppm, respectively, at which levels an increase in liver weight was evident. Also the vitellogenin production by carp hepatocytes, a sensitive marker of estrogenic activity, was not affected by these two fragrance materials (Smeets, J.M.W., Rouhani Rankouhi, T., Nichols, K.M., Komen, H., Kaminsky, N.E., Giesy, J.P., Van den Berg, M., 1999. In vitro vitellogenin production by carp (Cyprimus carpio) hepatocytes as a screening method for determining (anti-) estrogenic activity of xenobiotics. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 157, 68-76). Therefore it is concluded that these compounds have very weak estrogenic potency, too weak to induce estrogenic effects in wildlife species or humans at the current levels of exposure. These results give further support to the promiscuity of estrogen receptors.

Hydrophobicity of complex organic mixtures.

Hydrophobicity is an important property in risk assessment of chemicals. A group parameter that reflects the hydrophobicity of technical mixtures is not yet available. However, many substances are complex organic mixtures, for which it is practically impossible to determine each component separately. An experimental procedure to measure the hydrophobicity of organic mixtures without knowledge of the individual components was developed and tested for a mixture of benzene and twelve chlorobenzenes. This procedure is based on separation of the mixture into fractions of increasing hydrophobicity by reversed-phase HPLC, after which the total molar concentration in each fraction is determined by vapour pressure osmometry. The obtained information on hydrophobicity can be used for assessing bioaccumulation and sediment sorption after emission of the mixture to water has occurred.

Reproductive strategy, clonal structure and genetic diversity in populations of the aquatic macrophyte Sparganium emersum in river systems.

Many aquatic and riparian plant species are characterized by the ability to reproduce both sexually and asexually. Yet, little is known about how spatial variation in sexual and asexual reproduction affects the genotypic diversity within populations of aquatic and riparian plants. We used six polymorphic microsatellites to examine the genetic diversity within and differentiation among 17 populations (606 individuals) of Sparganium emersum, in two Dutch-German rivers. Our study revealed a striking difference between rivers in the mode of reproduction (sexual vs. asexual) within S. emersum populations. The mode of reproduction was strongly related to locally reigning hydrodynamic conditions. Sexually reproducing populations exhibited a greater number of multilocus genotypes compared to asexual populations. The regional population structure suggested higher levels of gene flow among sexually reproducing populations compared to clonal populations. Gene flow was mainly mediated via hydrochoric dispersal of generative propagules (seeds), impeding genetic differentiation among populations even over river distances up to 50 km. Although evidence for hydrochoric dispersal of vegetative propagules (clonal plant fragments) was found, this mechanism appeared to be relatively less important. Bayesian-based assignment procedures revealed a number of immigrants, originating from outside our study area, suggesting intercatchment plant dispersal, possibly the result of waterfowl-mediated seed dispersal. This study demonstrates how variation in local environmental conditions in river systems, resulting in shifting balances of sexual vs. asexual reproduction within populations, will affect the genotypic diversity within populations. This study furthermore cautions against generalizations about dispersal of riparian plant species in river systems.