Association of Asthma Risk Alleles With Acute Respiratory Tract Infections and Wheezing Illnesses in Young Children.

BACKGROUND: Genome-wide association studies have identified several risk alleles for early childhood asthma, particularly in the 17q21 locus and in the cadherin-related family member 3 (CDHR3) gene. Contribution of these alleles to the risk of acute respiratory tract infections (ARI) in early childhood is unclear. METHODS: We analyzed data from the STEPS birth-cohort study of unselected children and the VINKU and VINKU2 studies on children with severe wheezing illness. Genome-wide genotyping was performed on 1011 children. We analyzed the association between 11 preselected asthma risk alleles and the risk of ARIs and wheezing illnesses of various viral etiologies. RESULTS: The asthma risk alleles in CDHR3, GSDMA, and GSDMB were associated with an increased rate of ARIs (for CDHR3, incidence rate ratio [IRR], 1.06; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.01-1.12; P = .02), and risk allele in CDHR3 gene with rhinovirus infections (IRR, 1.10; 95% CI, 1.01-1.20, P = .03). Asthma risk alleles in GSDMA, GSDMB, IKZF3, ZPBP2, and ORMDL3 genes were associated with wheezing illnesses in early childhood, especially rhinovirus-positive wheezing illnesses. CONCLUSIONS: Asthma risk alleles were associated with an increased rate of ARIs and an increased risk of viral wheezing illnesses. Nonwheezing and wheezing ARIs and asthma may have shared genetic risk factors. Clinical Trials Registration. NCT00494624 and NCT00731575.

Enterovirus D68 Outbreak in Children, Finland, August-September 2022.

We observed an intense enterovirus D68 outbreak in children in southwest Finland in August-September 2022. We confirmed enterovirus D68 infection in 56 children hospitalized for respiratory illnesses and in 1 child with encephalitis but were not able to test all suspected patients. Continuing surveillance for enterovirus D68 is needed.

Respiratory viral infections - impact on sport and exercise medicine.

Respiratory viruses are the most frequent causative agents of disease in humans and thus also in elite athletes. The COVID-19 pandemic has recently emphasized the entire spectrum of respiratory tract infections worldwide. Understanding the basic elements of respiratory viral infections is a fundamental requirement from the perspective of etiological diagnostics, treatment, and prevention strategy planning, as well as resource allocation.

Non-SARS-CoV-2 Respiratory Viruses in Athletes at Major Winter Sport Events, 2021 and 2022.

We performed prospective studies on respiratory viral infections among Team Finland participants during the 2021 Oberstdorf World Ski Championships and the 2022 Beijing Olympic Games. We enrolled 73 athletes and 110 staff members. Compared with similar studies we conducted before the COVID-19 pandemic, illnesses and virus detections dropped by 10-fold.

Herpesvirus infections in adenoids in patients with chronic adenotonsillar disease.

Adenoids and tonsils have gained interest as a new in vivo model to study local immune functions and virus reservoirs. Especially herpesviruses are interesting because their prevalence and persistence in local lymphoid tissue are incompletely known. Our aim was to study herpesvirus and common respiratory virus infections in nonacutely ill adenotonsillar surgery patients. Adenoid and/or palatine tonsil tissue and nasopharyngeal aspirate (NPA) samples were collected from elective adenoidectomy (n = 45) and adenotonsillectomy (n = 44) patients (median age: 5, range: 1-20). Real-time polymerase chain reaction was used to detect 22 distinct viruses from collected samples. The overall prevalence of herpesviruses was 89% and respiratory viruses 94%. Human herpesviruses 6 (HHV6), 7 (HHV7), and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) were found, respectively, in adenoids (33%, 26%, 25%), tonsils (45%, 52%, 23%), and NPA (46%, 38%, 25%). Copy numbers of the HHV6 and HHV7 genome were significantly higher in tonsils than in adenoids. Patients with intra-adenoid HHV6 were younger than those without. Detection rates of EBV and HHV7 showed agreement between corresponding sample types. This study shows that adenoid and tonsil tissues commonly harbor human herpes- and respiratory viruses, and it shows the differences in virus findings between sample types.

Association of human myxovirus resistance protein A with severity of COVID-19.

BACKGROUND: In this retrospective cohort study, we explored the correlation of blood human myxovirus resistance protein A (MxA) level with severity of disease in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. METHODS: All 304 patients admitted for COVID-19 in our hospital until 30th of April 2021 were included in this study. MxA was measured from peripheral blood samples in 268 cases. Patients were divided into groups based on their level of MxA on admission. We studied baseline characteristics and severity of disease on admission based on clinical parameters and inflammatory biomarker levels in each group. Severity of disease during hospitalization was determined by the applied level of respiratory support, by the usage of corticosteroids and by the duration of hospitalization. RESULTS: Higher MxA levels on admission were associated with a shorter duration of symptoms before admission, and with more severe disease. Adjusted Odds Ratios for any respiratory support were 9.92 (95%CI 2.11-46.58; p = 0.004) in patients with MxA between 400 µg/L and 799 µg/L (p = 0.004) and 20.08 (95%CI 4.51-89.44; p < 0.001) in patients with MxA ≥ 800 µg/L in comparison with patients with initial MxA < 400 µg/L. The usage of corticosteroids was significantly higher in the high-MxA group (77%) in comparison with the intermediate-MxA group (62%, p = 0.013) and low-MxA group (47%, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Higher initial levels of MxA were associated with more severe COVID-19. MxA may be a helpful additional biomarker to predict the severity of the disease.

Detection of group A streptococcus in children with confirmed viral pharyngitis and antiviral host response.

Our aim was to study the detection of group A streptococcus (GAS) with different diagnostic methods in paediatric pharyngitis patients with and without a confirmed viral infection. In this prospective observational study, throat swabs and blood samples were collected from children (age 1-16 years) presenting to the emergency department with febrile pharyngitis. A confirmed viral infection was defined as a positive virus diagnostic test (nucleic acid amplification test [NAAT] and/or serology) together with an antiviral immune response of the host demonstrated by elevated (≥ 175 µg/L) myxovirus resistance protein A (MxA) blood concentration. Testing for GAS was performed by a throat culture, by 2 rapid antigen detection tests (StrepTop and mariPOC) and by 2 NAATs (Simplexa and Illumigene). Altogether, 83 children were recruited of whom 48 had samples available for GAS testing. Confirmed viral infection was diagnosed in 30/48 (63%) children with febrile pharyngitis. Enteroviruses 11/30 (37%), adenoviruses 9/30 (30%) and rhinoviruses 9/30 (30%) were the most common viruses detected. GAS was detected by throat culture in 5/30 (17%) with and in 6/18 (33%) patients without a confirmed viral infection. Respectively, GAS was detected in 4/30 (13%) and 6/18 (33%) by StrepTop, 13/30 (43%) and 10/18 (56%) by mariPOC, 6/30 (20%) and 9/18 (50%) by Simplexa, and 5/30 (17%) and 6/18 (30%) patients by Illumigene. CONCLUSION: GAS was frequently detected also in paediatric pharyngitis patients with a confirmed viral infection. The presence of antiviral host response and increased GAS detection by sensitive methods suggest incidental throat carriage of GAS in viral pharyngitis. WHAT IS KNOWN: •The frequency and significance of GAS-virus co-detection are poorly characterised in children with pharyngitis. •Detection of a virus and the antiviral host response likely indicates symptomatic infection. WHAT IS NEW: •Group A streptococcus (GAS) was detected in 17-43% of the children with confirmed viral pharyngitis depending on the GAS diagnostic method. •Our results emphasize the risk of detecting and treating incidental pharyngeal carriage of GAS in children with viral pharyngitis.

Burden of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection During the First Year of Life.

BACKGROUND: Although many infants with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection are hospitalized, most infants are treated as outpatients. Limited data are available on the burden of RSV in outpatient infants. METHODS: In a prospective study, we enrolled 431 newborn infants and followed them up for a 10-month period (September-June). During each respiratory illness, we examined the infants and obtained nasopharyngeal specimens for the detection of RSV. The parents completed daily symptom diaries throughout the study. RESULTS: Among 408 active participants, the seasonal incidence rate of RSV illness was 328.4 per 1000 (95% confidence interval [CI], 275.2-389.0). Infants with ≥1 sibling had a 1.9-fold higher incidence of RSV illness than those without siblings (95% CI, 1.3-2.8; P < .001). Acute otitis media developed in 103 (76.9%) of 134 infants with RSV infection, and 95 (70.9%) were treated with antibiotics. Nine infants with RSV (6.7%) were hospitalized, for a seasonal incidence rate of RSV hospitalization of 22.1 per 1000 (95% CI, 10.1-41.9). CONCLUSIONS: The outpatient burden of RSV is heavy on infants during the first year of life. Acute otitis media is a frequent complication of RSV, and it should be included in cost-effectiveness analyses of prevention or treatment of RSV infections in infants.

Associations Between IFI44L Gene Variants and Rates of Respiratory Tract Infections During Early Childhood.

BACKGROUND: Genetic heterogeneity in type I interferon (IFN)-related gene IFI44L may account for variable susceptibility to respiratory tract infections (RTIs) in children. METHODS: In 2 prospective, population-based birth cohorts, the STEPS Study and the FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study, IFI44L genotypes for rs273259 and rs1333969 were determined in relation to the development of RTIs until 1 or 2 years of age, respectively. At age 3 months, whole-blood transcriptional profiles were analyzed and nasal samples were tested for respiratory viruses in a subset of children. RESULTS: In the STEPS Study (n = 1135), IFI44L minor/minor gene variants were associated with lower rates of acute otitis media episodes (adjusted incidence rate ratio, 0.77 [95% confidence interval, .61-.96] for rs273259 and 0.74 [.55-.99] for rs1333969) and courses of antibiotics for RTIs (0.76 [.62-.95] and 0.73 [.56-.97], respectively. In the FinnBrain cohort (n = 971), IFI44L variants were associated with lower rates of RTIs and courses of antibiotics for RTIs. In respiratory virus-positive 3-month-old children, IFI44L gene variants were associated with decreased expression levels of IFI44L and several other IFN-related genes. CONCLUSIONS: Variant forms of IFI44L gene were protective against early-childhood RTIs or acute otitis media, and they attenuated IFN pathway activation by respiratory viruses.

A Combination of N and S Antigens With IgA and IgG Measurement Strengthens the Accuracy of SARS-CoV-2 Serodiagnostics.

BACKGROUND: Primary diagnosis of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is based on detection of virus RNA in nasopharyngeal swab samples. In addition, analysis of humoral immunity against SARS-CoV-2 has an important role in viral diagnostics and seroprevalence estimates. METHODS: We developed and optimized an enzyme immunoassays (EIA) using SARS-CoV-2 nucleoprotein (N), S1 and receptor binding domain (RBD) of the viral spike protein, and N proteins from SARS, Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and 4 low-pathogenic human CoVs. Neutralizing antibody activity was compared with SARS-CoV-2 IgG, IgA, and IgM EIA results. RESULTS: The sensitivity of EIA for detecting immune response in COVID-19 patients (n = 101) was 77% in the acute phase and 100% in the convalescent phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection when N and RBD were used as antigens in IgG and IgA specific EIAs. SARS-CoV-2 infection significantly increased humoral immune responses against the 229E and NL63 N proteins. S1 and RBD-based EIA results had a strong correlation with microneutralization test results. CONCLUSIONS: The data indicate a combination of SARS-CoV-2 S1 or RBD and N proteins and analysis of IgG and IgA immunoglobulin classes in sera provide an excellent basis for specific and sensitive serological diagnostics of COVID-19.

Antibiotic Treatments During Infancy, Changes in Nasal Microbiota, and Asthma Development: Population-based Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Early-life exposures to antibiotics may increase the risk of developing childhood asthma. However, little is known about the mechanisms linking antibiotic exposures to asthma. We hypothesized that changes in the nasal airway microbiota serve as a causal mediator in the antibiotics-asthma link. METHODS: In a population-based birth-cohort study in Finland, we identified longitudinal nasal microbiota profiles during age 2-24 months using 16S rRNA gene sequencing and an unsupervised machine learning approach. We performed a causal mediation analysis to estimate the natural direct effect of systemic antibiotic treatments during age 0-11 months on risks of developing physician-diagnosed asthma by age 7 years and the natural indirect (causal mediation) effect through longitudinal changes in nasal microbiota. RESULTS: In our birth cohort of 697 children, 8.0% later developed asthma. Exposure to ≥2 antibiotic treatments during age 0-11 months was associated with a 4.0% increase in the absolute risk of developing asthma (absolute increase, 95% CI, .9-7.2%; P = .006). The unsupervised clustering approach identified 6 longitudinal nasal microbiota profiles. Infants with a larger number of antibiotic treatments had a higher risk of having a profile with early Moraxella sparsity (per each antibiotic treatment, adjusted RRR, 1.38; 95% CI, 1.15-1.66; P < .001). This effect of antibiotics on asthma was partly mediated by longitudinal changes in the nasal microbiota (natural indirect effect, P = .008), accounting for 16% of the total effect. CONCLUSIONS: Early exposures to antibiotics were associated with increased risk of asthma; the effect was mediated, in part, by longitudinal changes in the nasal airway microbiota.

Association of Viral Load With Disease Severity in Outpatient Children With Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection.

BACKGROUND: There are scarce data on whether viral load affects the severity of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) disease in outpatient children. METHODS: We analyzed the association between viral load and disease severity among children who participated in a prospective cohort study of respiratory infections. The children were examined and nasal swabs for the detection of RSV were obtained during each respiratory illness. Quantification of RSV load was based on the cycle threshold (Ct) value. For the primary analysis, the children were divided into 2 groups: higher (Ct < 27) and lower viral load (Ct ≥ 27). RESULTS: Among 201 episodes of RSV infection, children with higher viral load had significantly longer median durations of rhinitis (8 vs 6 days; P = .0008), cough (8 vs 6 days; P = .034), fever (2 vs 1 days; P = .018), and any symptom (10 vs 8 days; P = .024) than those with lower viral load. There were statistically significant negative correlations between the Ct values and durations of all measured symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings support the concept that viral load drives the severity of RSV disease in children. Reducing the viral load by RSV antivirals might provide substantial benefits to outpatient children.

Prevalence of respiratory viruses and antiviral MxA responses in children with febrile urinary tract infection.

Blood myxovirus resistance protein A (MxA) has broad antiviral activity, and it is a potential biomarker for symptomatic virus infections. Limited data is available of MxA in coinciding viral and bacterial infections. We investigated blood MxA levels in children hospitalized with a febrile urinary tract infection (UTI) with or without simultaneous respiratory virus infection. We conducted a prospective observational study of 43 children hospitalized with febrile UTI. Nasopharyngeal swab samples were collected at admission and tested for 16 respiratory viruses by nucleic acid detection methods. Respiratory symptoms were recorded, and blood MxA levels were determined. The median age of study children was 4 months (interquartile range, 2-14 months). A respiratory virus was detected in 17 (40%) children with febrile UTI. Of the virus-positive children with febrile UTI, 7 (41%) had simultaneous respiratory symptoms. Blood MxA levels were higher in virus-positive children with respiratory symptoms (median, 778 [interquartile range, 535-2538] µg/L) compared to either virus-negative (155 [94-301] µg/L, P < 0.001) or virus-positive (171 [112-331] µg/L, P = 0.006) children without respiratory symptoms at presentation with febrile UTI. MxA differentiated virus-positive children with respiratory symptoms from virus-negative without symptoms by an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.96. Respiratory viruses were frequently detected in children with febrile UTI. In UTI with simultaneous respiratory symptoms, host antiviral immune response was demonstrated by elevated blood MxA protein levels. MxA protein could be a robust biomarker of symptomatic viral infection in children with febrile UTI.

No Correlation Between Nasopharyngeal Human Bocavirus 1 Genome Load and mRNA Detection or Serology in Adeno-/Tonsillectomy Patients.

Human bocavirus 1 (HBoV1) can persist in nasopharynx and tonsils. Using HBoV1 serology, reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for detecting messenger RNA (mRNA) and quantitative PCR for HBoV1 genome load count, we studied to what extent the HBoV1 DNA loads in nasopharynx correlate with acute infection markers. Tonsillar tissue, nasopharyngeal aspirate, and serum were obtained from 188 elective adeno-/tonsillectomy patients. Relatively high loads of HBoV1 DNA were detected in the nasopharynx of 14 (7%) primarily asymptomatic subjects with negative mRNA and/or serodiagnostic results. Quantitative HBoV1 DNA PCR may have lower specificity than HBoV1 mRNA detection for diagnosing symptomatic infection.

Early nasal microbiota and acute respiratory infections during the first years of life.

BACKGROUND: Emerging evidence shows that airway microbiota may modulate local immune responses, thereby contributing to the susceptibility and severity of acute respiratory infections (ARIs). However, there are little data on the longitudinal relationships between airway microbiota and susceptibility to ARIs in children. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to investigate the association of early nasal microbiota and the subsequent risk of ARIs during the first years of life. METHODS: In this prospective population-based birth-cohort study in Finland, we followed 839 healthy infants for ARIs from birth to age 24 months. Nasal microbiota was tested using 16S rRNA gene sequencing at age 2 months. We applied an unsupervised clustering approach to identify early nasal microbiota profiles, and examined the association of profiles with the rate of ARIs during age 2-24 months. RESULTS: We identified five nasal microbiota profiles dominated by Moraxella, Streptococcus, Dolosigranulum, Staphylococcus and Corynebacteriaceae, respectively. Incidence rate of ARIs was highest in children with an early Moraxella-dominant profile and lowest in those with a Corynebacteriaceae-dominant profile (738 vs 552/100 children years; unadjusted incidence rate ratio (IRR), 1.34; 95% CI 1.16 to 1.54; p < 0.001). After adjusting for nine potential confounders, the Moraxella-dominant profile-ARI association persisted (adjusted IRR (aIRR), 1.19; 95% CI 1.04 to 1.37; p = 0.01). Similarly, the incidence rate of lower respiratory tract infections (a subset of all ARIs) was significantly higher in children with an early Moraxella-dominant profile (aIRR, 2.79; 95% CI 1.04 to 8.09; p = 0.04). CONCLUSION: Moraxella-dominant nasal microbiota profile in early infancy was associated with an increased rate of ARIs during the first 2 years of life.

Common cold in Team Finland during 2018 Winter Olympic Games (PyeongChang): epidemiology, diagnosis including molecular point-of-care testing (POCT) and treatment.

OBJECTIVES: The common cold is the main cause of medical time loss in elite sport. Rapid diagnosis has been a challenge that may be amenable to molecular point-of-care testing (POCT). METHODS: We performed a prospective observational study of the common cold in Team Finland during the 2018 Winter Olympic Games. There were 44 elite athletes and 68 staff members. The chief physician recorded the symptoms of the common cold daily on a standardised form. Two nasal swabs were taken at the onset of symptoms. One swab was analysed within 45 min using a molecular POCT for respiratory syncytial virus and influenza A and B viruses. After the Games, the other swab was tested for 16 possible causative respiratory viruses using PCR in laboratory-based testing. RESULTS: 20 out of 44 (45%) athletes and 22 out of 68 (32%) staff members experienced symptoms of the common cold during a median stay of 21 days. Eleven (26%) samples tested virus-positive using POCT. All subjects with influenza (n=6) and 32 close contacts were treated with oseltamivir. The aetiology of the common cold was finally detected in 75% of the athletes and 68 % of the staff members. Seven virus clusters were identified. They were caused by coronaviruses 229E, NL63 and OC43, influenza B virus, respiratory syncytial virus A, rhinovirus and human metapneumovirus. The virus infections spread readily within the team, most commonly within the same sport discipline. CONCLUSIONS: The cold was indeed a common illness in Team Finland during the Winter Olympic Games. POCT proved to be clinically valuable, especially for influenza. The aetiology of the common cold was identified in most cases.

Acquisition and Transmission of Streptococcus pneumoniae Are Facilitated during Rhinovirus Infection in Families with Children.

RATIONALE: Laboratory and clinical evidence suggests synergy between rhinoviruses and Streptococcus pneumoniae in the pathogenesis of respiratory tract infections. However, it is unclear whether rhinoviruses promote pneumococcal acquisition and transmission. OBJECTIVES: To describe the impact of rhinovirus infection on the acquisition and transmission of pneumococci within families with children. METHODS: We investigated 29 families with at least two children. The follow-up started at the onset of respiratory infectious symptoms in any family member and consisted of daily symptom diary and nasal swab samples from each participant twice per week for 3 weeks. Swabs were taken by the parents and sent to a study clinic by mail. Rhinoviruses were detected by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and typed by sequencing. Pneumococci were identified by an antigen test and by standard culture methods, serotyping, and whole-genome sequencing. The effect of rhinovirus infection on the rates of pneumococcal acquisition and within-family transmission was estimated from the observed acquisition events and person-times spent uncolonized, using Poisson regression. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Rhinovirus was detected in 38 subjects (30%) at the onset and in 86 subjects (67%) during the follow-up. S. pneumoniae was detected on the first day in 9 (7%) and during follow-up in 38 (30%) subjects. Children with rhinovirus infection had a 4.3-fold rate of pneumococcal acquisition from the community (95% confidence interval, 1.1-15.4) and a 14.8-fold rate of within-family transmission (95% confidence interval, 3.1-69.6) compared with children without rhinovirus infection. CONCLUSIONS: Rhinovirus infection within families facilitates acquisition and within-family transmission of S. pneumoniae.

Seasonality and geographical spread of respiratory syncytial virus epidemics in 15 European countries, 2010 to 2016.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is considered the most common pathogen causing severe lower respiratory tract infections among infants and young children. We describe the seasonality and geographical spread of RSV infection in 15 countries of the European Union and European Economic Area. We performed a retrospective descriptive study of weekly laboratory-confirmed RSV detections between weeks 40/2010 and 20/2016, in patients investigated for influenza-like illness, acute respiratory infection or following the clinician's judgment. Six countries reported 4,230 sentinel RSV laboratory diagnoses from primary care and 14 countries reported 156,188 non-sentinel laboratory diagnoses from primary care or hospitals. The median length of the RSV season based on sentinel and non-sentinel surveillance was 16 (range: 9-24) and 18 (range: 8-24) weeks, respectively. The median peak weeks for sentinel and non-sentinel detections were week 4 (range: 48 to 11) and week 4.5 (range: 49 to 17), respectively. RSV detections peaked later (r = 0.56; p = 0.0360) and seasons lasted longer with increasing latitude (r = 0.57; p = 0.0329). Our data demonstrated regular seasonality with moderate correlation between timing of the epidemic and increasing latitude of the country. This study supports the use of RSV diagnostics within influenza or other surveillance systems to monitor RSV seasonality and geographical spread.

Clinical and Socioeconomic Burden of Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection in Children.

BACKGROUND: Vaccines and antivirals against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) are being developed, but there are scarce data on the full impact of RSV infection on outpatient children. METHODS: We analyzed the burden of RSV illness in a prospective cohort study of children aged ≤13 years during 2 consecutive respiratory seasons in Turku, Finland (2231 child-seasons of follow-up). We examined the children and obtained nasal swabs for the detection of RSV during each respiratory illness. The parents filled out daily symptom diaries throughout the study. RESULTS: Of 6001 medically attended respiratory infections, 302 (5%) were caused by RSV. Per 1000 children, the average annual RSV infection incidence rates among children aged <3, 3-6, and 7-13 years were 275, 117, and 46 cases, respectively. In children aged <3 years, acute otitis media developed in 58%, and 66% of children in this age group received antibiotics. The mean duration of RSV illness was longest (13.0 days) and the rate of parental work absenteeism was highest (136 days per 100 children with RSV illness) in children aged <3 years. CONCLUSIONS: The burden of RSV is particularly great among outpatient children aged <3 years. Young children are an important target group for the development of RSV vaccines and antivirals.

Detection of Host Response to Viral Respiratory Infection by Measurement of Messenger RNA for MxA, TRIM21, and Viperin in Nasal Swabs.

Respiratory viruses frequently cause symptomatic infections in children but are often detected also in healthy children. We investigated myxovirus resistance protein A (MxA), viperin, and tripartite-motif 21 (TRIM21) messenger RNA indexes in nasal swabs as potential biomarkers of viral respiratory infection in children. Respiratory viruses were detected by polymerase chain reaction in the same swabs. Nasal MxA and viperin indexes were increased in symptomatic virus-positive children. Nasal viperin index was found to be a robust marker of viral respiratory tract infection with a sensitivity of 80% and specificity of 94% in distinguishing children with symptomatic virus infections from asymptomatic virus-negative children.