Metabolite-Sensing G Protein-Coupled Receptors-Facilitators of Diet-Related Immune Regulation.

Nutrition and the gut microbiome regulate many systems, including the immune, metabolic, and nervous systems. We propose that the host responds to deficiency (or sufficiency) of dietary and bacterial metabolites in a dynamic way, to optimize responses and survival. A family of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) termed the metabolite-sensing GPCRs bind to various metabolites and transmit signals that are important for proper immune and metabolic functions. Members of this family include GPR43, GPR41, GPR109A, GPR120, GPR40, GPR84, GPR35, and GPR91. In addition, bile acid receptors such as GPR131 (TGR5) and proton-sensing receptors such as GPR65 show similar features. A consistent feature of this family of GPCRs is that they provide anti-inflammatory signals; many also regulate metabolism and gut homeostasis. These receptors represent one of the main mechanisms whereby the gut microbiome affects vertebrate physiology, and they also provide a link between the immune and metabolic systems. Insufficient signaling through one or more of these metabolite-sensing GPCRs likely contributes to human diseases such as asthma, food allergies, type 1 and type 2 diabetes, hepatic steatosis, cardiovascular disease, and inflammatory bowel diseases.

Opposing GPCR signaling programs protein intake setpoint in Drosophila.

Animals defend a target level for their fundamental needs, including food, water, and sleep. Deviation from the target range, or "setpoint," triggers motivated behaviors to eliminate that difference. Whether and how the setpoint itself is encoded remains enigmatic for all motivated behaviors. Employing a high-throughput feeding assay in Drosophila, we demonstrate that the protein intake setpoint is set to different values in male, virgin female, and mated female flies to meet their varying protein demands. Leveraging this setpoint variability, we found, remarkably, that the information on the intake setpoint is stored within the protein hunger neurons as the resting membrane potential. Two RFamide G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) pathways, by tuning the resting membrane potential in opposite directions, coordinately program and adjust the protein intake setpoint. Together, our studies map the protein intake setpoint to a single trackable physiological parameter and elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying setpoint determination and modulation.

Direct interrogation of context-dependent GPCR activity with a universal biosensor platform.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest family of druggable proteins encoded in the human genome, but progress in understanding and targeting them is hindered by the lack of tools to reliably measure their nuanced behavior in physiologically relevant contexts. Here, we developed a collection of compact ONE vector G-protein Optical (ONE-GO) biosensor constructs as a scalable platform that can be conveniently deployed to measure G-protein activation by virtually any GPCR with high fidelity even when expressed endogenously in primary cells. By characterizing dozens of GPCRs across many cell types like primary cardiovascular cells or neurons, we revealed insights into the molecular basis for G-protein coupling selectivity of GPCRs, pharmacogenomic profiles of anti-psychotics on naturally occurring GPCR variants, and G-protein subtype signaling bias by endogenous GPCRs depending on cell type or upon inducing disease-like states. In summary, this open-source platform makes the direct interrogation of context-dependent GPCR activity broadly accessible.

Highly multiplexed bioactivity screening reveals human and microbiota metabolome-GPCRome interactions.

The human body contains thousands of metabolites derived from mammalian cells, the microbiota, food, and medical drugs. Many bioactive metabolites act through the engagement of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs); however, technological limitations constrain current explorations of metabolite-GPCR interactions. Here, we developed a highly multiplexed screening technology called PRESTO-Salsa that enables simultaneous assessment of nearly all conventional GPCRs (>300 receptors) in a single well of a 96-well plate. Using PRESTO-Salsa, we screened 1,041 human-associated metabolites against the GPCRome and uncovered previously unreported endogenous, exogenous, and microbial GPCR agonists. Next, we leveraged PRESTO-Salsa to generate an atlas of microbiome-GPCR interactions across 435 human microbiome strains from multiple body sites, revealing conserved patterns of cross-tissue GPCR engagement and activation of CD97/ADGRE5 by the Porphyromonas gingivalis protease gingipain K. These studies thus establish a highly multiplexed bioactivity screening technology and expose a diverse landscape of human, diet, drug, and microbiota metabolome-GPCRome interactions.

Structural and signaling mechanisms of TAAR1 enabled preferential agonist design.

Trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1) senses a spectrum of endogenous amine-containing metabolites (EAMs) to mediate diverse psychological functions and is useful for schizophrenia treatment without the side effects of catalepsy. Here, we systematically profiled the signaling properties of TAAR1 activation and present nine structures of TAAR1-Gs/Gq in complex with EAMs, clinical drugs, and synthetic compounds. These structures not only revealed the primary amine recognition pocket (PARP) harboring the conserved acidic D3.32 for conserved amine recognition and "twin" toggle switch for receptor activation but also elucidated that targeting specific residues in the second binding pocket (SBP) allowed modulation of signaling preference. In addition to traditional drug-induced Gs signaling, Gq activation by EAM or synthetic compounds is beneficial to schizophrenia treatment. Our results provided a structural and signaling framework for molecular recognition by TAAR1, which afforded structural templates and signal clues for TAAR1-targeted candidate compounds design.

Snapshot of the cannabinoid receptor 1-arrestin complex unravels the biased signaling mechanism.

Cannabis activates the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1), which elicits analgesic and emotion regulation benefits, along with adverse effects, via Gi and ß-arrestin signaling pathways. However, the lack of understanding of the mechanism of ß-arrestin-1 (ßarr1) coupling and signaling bias has hindered drug development targeting CB1. Here, we present the high-resolution cryo-electron microscopy structure of CB1-ßarr1 complex bound to the synthetic cannabinoid MDMB-Fubinaca (FUB), revealing notable differences in the transducer pocket and ligand-binding site compared with the Gi protein complex. ßarr1 occupies a wider transducer pocket promoting substantial outward movement of the TM6 and distinctive twin toggle switch rearrangements, whereas FUB adopts a different pose, inserting more deeply than the Gi-coupled state, suggesting the allosteric correlation between the orthosteric binding pocket and the partner protein site. Taken together, our findings unravel the molecular mechanism of signaling bias toward CB1, facilitating the development of CB1 agonists.

Plasma membrane preassociation drives ß-arrestin coupling to receptors and activation.

ß-arrestin plays a key role in G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling and desensitization. Despite recent structural advances, the mechanisms that govern receptor-ß-arrestin interactions at the plasma membrane of living cells remain elusive. Here, we combine single-molecule microscopy with molecular dynamics simulations to dissect the complex sequence of events involved in ß-arrestin interactions with both receptors and the lipid bilayer. Unexpectedly, our results reveal that ß-arrestin spontaneously inserts into the lipid bilayer and transiently interacts with receptors via lateral diffusion on the plasma membrane. Moreover, they indicate that, following receptor interaction, the plasma membrane stabilizes ß-arrestin in a longer-lived, membrane-bound state, allowing it to diffuse to clathrin-coated pits separately from the activating receptor. These results expand our current understanding of ß-arrestin function at the plasma membrane, revealing a critical role for ß-arrestin preassociation with the lipid bilayer in facilitating its interactions with receptors and subsequent activation.

Negative allosteric modulation of the glucagon receptor by RAMP2.

Receptor activity-modifying proteins (RAMPs) modulate the activity of many Family B GPCRs. We show that RAMP2 directly interacts with the glucagon receptor (GCGR), a Family B GPCR responsible for blood sugar homeostasis, and broadly inhibits receptor-induced downstream signaling. HDX-MS experiments demonstrate that RAMP2 enhances local flexibility in select locations in and near the receptor extracellular domain (ECD) and in the 6th transmembrane helix, whereas smFRET experiments show that this ECD disorder results in the inhibition of active and intermediate states of the intracellular surface. We determined the cryo-EM structure of the GCGR-Gs complex at 2.9 Å resolution in the presence of RAMP2. RAMP2 apparently does not interact with GCGR in an ordered manner; however, the receptor ECD is indeed largely disordered along with rearrangements of several intracellular hallmarks of activation. Our studies suggest that RAMP2 acts as a negative allosteric modulator of GCGR by enhancing conformational sampling of the ECD.

Membrane phosphoinositides regulate GPCR-ß-arrestin complex assembly and dynamics.

Binding of arrestin to phosphorylated G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) is crucial for modulating signaling. Once internalized, some GPCRs remain complexed with ß-arrestins, while others interact only transiently; this difference affects GPCR signaling and recycling. Cell-based and in vitro biophysical assays reveal the role of membrane phosphoinositides (PIPs) in ß-arrestin recruitment and GPCR-ß-arrestin complex dynamics. We find that GPCRs broadly stratify into two groups, one that requires PIP binding for ß-arrestin recruitment and one that does not. Plasma membrane PIPs potentiate an active conformation of ß-arrestin and stabilize GPCR-ß-arrestin complexes by promoting a fully engaged state of the complex. As allosteric modulators of GPCR-ß-arrestin complex dynamics, membrane PIPs allow for additional conformational diversity beyond that imposed by GPCR phosphorylation alone. For GPCRs that require membrane PIP binding for ß-arrestin recruitment, this provides a mechanism for ß-arrestin release upon translocation of the GPCR to endosomes, allowing for its rapid recycling.

GPCR-mediated ß-arrestin activation deconvoluted with single-molecule precision.

ß-arrestins bind G protein-coupled receptors to terminate G protein signaling and to facilitate other downstream signaling pathways. Using single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer imaging, we show that ß-arrestin is strongly autoinhibited in its basal state. Its engagement with a phosphopeptide mimicking phosphorylated receptor tail efficiently releases the ß-arrestin tail from its N domain to assume distinct conformations. Unexpectedly, we find that ß-arrestin binding to phosphorylated receptor, with a phosphorylation barcode identical to the isolated phosphopeptide, is highly inefficient and that agonist-promoted receptor activation is required for ß-arrestin activation, consistent with the release of a sequestered receptor C tail. These findings, together with focused cellular investigations, reveal that agonism and receptor C-tail release are specific determinants of the rate and efficiency of ß-arrestin activation by phosphorylated receptor. We infer that receptor phosphorylation patterns, in combination with receptor agonism, synergistically establish the strength and specificity with which diverse, downstream ß-arrestin-mediated events are directed.

A serotonergic axon-cilium synapse drives nuclear signaling to alter chromatin accessibility.

Chemical synapses between axons and dendrites mediate neuronal intercellular communication. Here, we describe a synapse between axons and primary cilia: the axo-ciliary synapse. Using enhanced focused ion beam-scanning electron microscopy on samples with optimally preserved ultrastructure, we discovered synapses between brainstem serotonergic axons and the primary cilia of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. Functionally, these cilia are enriched in a ciliary-restricted serotonin receptor, the 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 6 (5-HTR6). Using a cilia-targeted serotonin sensor, we show that opto- and chemogenetic stimulation of serotonergic axons releases serotonin onto cilia. Ciliary 5-HTR6 stimulation activates a non-canonical Gαq/11-RhoA pathway, which modulates nuclear actin and increases histone acetylation and chromatin accessibility. Ablation of this pathway reduces chromatin accessibility in CA1 pyramidal neurons. As a signaling apparatus with proximity to the nucleus, axo-ciliary synapses short circuit neurotransmission to alter the postsynaptic neuron's epigenetic state.

Cannabinoid receptor 1 antagonist genistein attenuates marijuana-induced vascular inflammation.

Epidemiological studies reveal that marijuana increases the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD); however, little is known about the mechanism. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), the psychoactive component of marijuana, binds to cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1/CNR1) in the vasculature and is implicated in CVD. A UK Biobank analysis found that cannabis was an risk factor for CVD. We found that marijuana smoking activated inflammatory cytokines implicated in CVD. In silico virtual screening identified genistein, a soybean isoflavone, as a putative CB1 antagonist. Human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived endothelial cells were used to model Δ9-THC-induced inflammation and oxidative stress via NF-κB signaling. Knockdown of the CB1 receptor with siRNA, CRISPR interference, and genistein attenuated the effects of Δ9-THC. In mice, genistein blocked Δ9-THC-induced endothelial dysfunction in wire myograph, reduced atherosclerotic plaque, and had minimal penetration of the central nervous system. Genistein is a CB1 antagonist that attenuates Δ9-THC-induced atherosclerosis.

Structural Insights Accelerate the Discovery of Opioid Alternatives.

Opioids such as morphine and oxycodone are analgesics frequently prescribed for the treatment of moderate or severe pain. Unfortunately, these medications are associated with exceptionally high abuse potentials and often cause fatal side effects, mainly through the µ-opioid receptor (MOR). Efforts to discover novel, safer, and more efficacious analgesics targeting MOR have encountered challenges. In this review, we summarize alternative strategies and targets that could be used to develop safer nonopioid analgesics. A molecular understanding of G protein-coupled receptor activation and signaling has illuminated not only the complexities of receptor pharmacology but also the potential for pathway-selective agonists and allosteric modulators as safer medications. The availability of structures of pain-related receptors, in combination with high-throughput computational tools, has accelerated the discovery of multitarget ligands with promising pharmacological profiles. Emerging clinical evidence also supports the notion that drugs targeting peripheral opioid receptors have potential as improved analgesic agents.

Delineating the conformational landscape of the adenosine A2A receptor during G protein coupling.

G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) represent a ubiquitous membrane protein family and are important drug targets. Their diverse signaling pathways are driven by complex pharmacology arising from a conformational ensemble rarely captured by structural methods. Here, fluorine nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (19F NMR) is used to delineate key functional states of the adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR) complexed with heterotrimeric G protein (Gαsß1γ2) in a phospholipid membrane milieu. Analysis of A2AR spectra as a function of ligand, G protein, and nucleotide identifies an ensemble represented by inactive states, a G-protein-bound activation intermediate, and distinct nucleotide-free states associated with either partial- or full-agonist-driven activation. The Gßγ subunit is found to be critical in facilitating ligand-dependent allosteric transmission, as shown by 19F NMR, biochemical, and computational studies. The results provide a mechanistic basis for understanding basal signaling, efficacy, precoupling, and allostery in GPCRs.

Lipolysis drives expression of the constitutively active receptor GPR3 to induce adipose thermogenesis.

Thermogenic adipocytes possess a therapeutically appealing, energy-expending capacity, which is canonically cold-induced by ligand-dependent activation of ß-adrenergic G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Here, we uncover an alternate paradigm of GPCR-mediated adipose thermogenesis through the constitutively active receptor, GPR3. We show that the N terminus of GPR3 confers intrinsic signaling activity, resulting in continuous Gs-coupling and cAMP production without an exogenous ligand. Thus, transcriptional induction of Gpr3 represents the regulatory parallel to ligand-binding of conventional GPCRs. Consequently, increasing Gpr3 expression in thermogenic adipocytes is alone sufficient to drive energy expenditure and counteract metabolic disease in mice. Gpr3 transcription is cold-stimulated by a lipolytic signal, and dietary fat potentiates GPR3-dependent thermogenesis to amplify the response to caloric excess. Moreover, we find GPR3 to be an essential, adrenergic-independent regulator of human brown adipocytes. Taken together, our findings reveal a noncanonical mechanism of GPCR control and thermogenic activation through the lipolysis-induced expression of constitutively active GPR3.

Structural Basis of WLS/Evi-Mediated Wnt Transport and Secretion.

Wnts are evolutionarily conserved ligands that signal at short range to regulate morphogenesis, cell fate, and stem cell renewal. The first and essential steps in Wnt secretion are their O-palmitoleation and subsequent loading onto the dedicated transporter Wntless/evenness interrupted (WLS/Evi). We report the 3.2 Å resolution cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structure of palmitoleated human WNT8A in complex with WLS. This is accompanied by biochemical experiments to probe the physiological implications of the observed association. The WLS membrane domain has close structural homology to G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). A Wnt hairpin inserts into a conserved hydrophobic cavity in the GPCR-like domain, and the palmitoleate protrudes between two helices into the bilayer. A conformational switch of highly conserved residues on a separate Wnt hairpin might contribute to its transfer to receiving cells. This work provides molecular-level insights into a central mechanism in animal body plan development and stem cell biology.

RTN4/NoGo-receptor binding to BAI adhesion-GPCRs regulates neuronal development.

RTN4-binding proteins were widely studied as "NoGo" receptors, but their physiological interactors and roles remain elusive. Similarly, BAI adhesion-GPCRs were associated with numerous activities, but their ligands and functions remain unclear. Using unbiased approaches, we observed an unexpected convergence: RTN4 receptors are high-affinity ligands for BAI adhesion-GPCRs. A single thrombospondin type 1-repeat (TSR) domain of BAIs binds to the leucine-rich repeat domain of all three RTN4-receptor isoforms with nanomolar affinity. In the 1.65 Å crystal structure of the BAI1/RTN4-receptor complex, C-mannosylation of tryptophan and O-fucosylation of threonine in the BAI TSR-domains creates a RTN4-receptor/BAI interface shaped by unusual glycoconjugates that enables high-affinity interactions. In human neurons, RTN4 receptors regulate dendritic arborization, axonal elongation, and synapse formation by differential binding to glial versus neuronal BAIs, thereby controlling neural network activity. Thus, BAI binding to RTN4/NoGo receptors represents a receptor-ligand axis that, enabled by rare post-translational modifications, controls development of synaptic circuits.

Revealing the Activity of Trimeric G-proteins in Live Cells with a Versatile Biosensor Design.

Heterotrimeric G-proteins (Gαßγ) are the main transducers of signals from GPCRs, mediating the action of countless natural stimuli and therapeutic agents. However, there are currently no robust approaches to directly measure the activity of endogenous G-proteins in cells. Here, we describe a suite of optical biosensors that detect endogenous active G-proteins with sub-second resolution in live cells. Using a modular design principle, we developed genetically encoded, unimolecular biosensors for endogenous Gα-GTP and free Gßγ: the two active species of heterotrimeric G-proteins. This design was leveraged to generate biosensors with specificity for different heterotrimeric G-proteins or for other G-proteins, such as Rho GTPases. Versatility was further validated by implementing the biosensors in multiple contexts, from characterizing cancer-associated G-protein mutants to neurotransmitter signaling in primary neurons. Overall, the versatile biosensor design introduced here enables studying the activity of endogenous G-proteins in live cells with high fidelity, temporal resolution, and convenience.

A Cardiovascular Disease-Linked Gut Microbial Metabolite Acts via Adrenergic Receptors.

Using untargeted metabolomics (n = 1,162 subjects), the plasma metabolite (m/z = 265.1188) phenylacetylglutamine (PAGln) was discovered and then shown in an independent cohort (n = 4,000 subjects) to be associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) and incident major adverse cardiovascular events (myocardial infarction, stroke, or death). A gut microbiota-derived metabolite, PAGln, was shown to enhance platelet activation-related phenotypes and thrombosis potential in whole blood, isolated platelets, and animal models of arterial injury. Functional and genetic engineering studies with human commensals, coupled with microbial colonization of germ-free mice, showed the microbial porA gene facilitates dietary phenylalanine conversion into phenylacetic acid, with subsequent host generation of PAGln and phenylacetylglycine (PAGly) fostering platelet responsiveness and thrombosis potential. Both gain- and loss-of-function studies employing genetic and pharmacological tools reveal PAGln mediates cellular events through G-protein coupled receptors, including α2A, α2B, and ß2-adrenergic receptors. PAGln thus represents a new CVD-promoting gut microbiota-dependent metabolite that signals via adrenergic receptors.

Structure of a Hallucinogen-Activated Gq-Coupled 5-HT2A Serotonin Receptor.

Hallucinogens like lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin, and substituted N-benzyl phenylalkylamines are widely used recreationally with psilocybin being considered as a therapeutic for many neuropsychiatric disorders including depression, anxiety, and substance abuse. How psychedelics mediate their actions-both therapeutic and hallucinogenic-are not understood, although activation of the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor (HTR2A) is key. To gain molecular insights into psychedelic actions, we determined the active-state structure of HTR2A bound to 25-CN-NBOH-a prototypical hallucinogen-in complex with an engineered Gαq heterotrimer by cryoelectron microscopy (cryo-EM). We also obtained the X-ray crystal structures of HTR2A complexed with the arrestin-biased ligand LSD or the inverse agonist methiothepin. Comparisons of these structures reveal determinants responsible for HTR2A-Gαq protein interactions as well as the conformational rearrangements involved in active-state transitions. Given the potential therapeutic actions of hallucinogens, these findings could accelerate the discovery of more selective drugs for the treatment of a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders.