SpotLight Proteomics Identifies Variable Sequences of Blood Antibodies Specific Against Deamidated Human Serum Albumin.

Spontaneous deamidation of asparaginyl residues in proteins, if not repaired or cleared, can set in motion a cascade that leads to deteriorated health. Previously, we have discovered that deamidated human serum albumin (HSA) is elevated in the blood of patients with Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases, while the level of endogenous antibodies against deamidated HSA is significantly diminished, creating an imbalance between the risk factor and the defense against it. Endogenous antibodies against deamidated proteins are still unexplored. In the current study, we employed the SpotLight proteomics approach to identify novel amino acid sequences in antibodies specific to deamidated HSA. The results provide new insights into the clearance mechanism of deamidated proteins, a possible avenue for prevention of neurodegeneration.

Thermal effects and drugs competition on the palmitate binding capacity of human serum albumin.

Human serum albumin (HSA) is the most abundant plasma protein of the circulatory system. It is a multidomain, multifunctional protein that, combining diverse affinities and wide specificity, binds, stores, and transports a variety of biological compounds, pharmacores, and fatty acids. HSA is finding increasing uses in drug-delivery due to its ability to carry functionalized ligands and prodrugs. All this raises the question of competition for binding sites occupancy in case of multiple ligands, which in turn influences the protein structure/dynamic/function relationship and also has an impact on the biomedical applications. In this work, the effects of interactive binding of palmitic acid (PA), warfarin (War) and ibuprofen (Ibu) on the thermal stability of HSA were studied using DSC, ATR-FTIR, and EPR. PA is a high-affinity physiological ligand, while the two drugs are widely used for their anticoagulant (War) and anti-inflammatory (Ibu) efficacy, and are exogenous compounds that accommodate in the deputed drug site DS1 and DS2, respectively overlapping with some of the fatty acid binding sites. The results indicate that HSA acquires the highest thermal stability when it is fully saturated with PA. The binding of this physiological ligand does not hamper the binding of War or Ibu to the native state of the protein. In addition, the three ligands bind simultaneously, suggesting a synergic cooperative influence due to allosteric effects. The increased thermal stability subsequent to binary and multiple ligands binding moderates protein aggregation propensity and restricts protein dynamics. The biophysics findings provide interesting features about protein stability, aggregation, and dynamics in interaction with multiple ligands and are relevant in drug-delivery.

Immunological Quantitation of the Glycation Site Lysine-414 in Serum Albumin in Human Plasma Samples by Indirect ELISA Using Highly Specific Monoclonal Antibodies.

Diabetes mellitus, a metabolic disorder that is characterized by elevated blood glucose levels, is common throughout the world and its prevalence is steadily increasing. Early diagnosis and treatment are important to prevent acute complications and life-threatening long-term organ damage. Glycation sites in human serum albumin (HSA) are considered to be promising biomarkers of systemic glycemic status. This work aimed to develop a sensitive and clinically applicable ELISA for the quantification of glycation site Lys414 in HSA (HSAK414 ). The monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) were generated by immunizing mice with a glycated peptide. The established indirect ELISA based on mAb 50D8 (IgG1 isotype) yielded a limit of detection of 0.39 nmol/g HSA for HSAK414 with a linear dynamic range from 0.50 to 6.25 nmol/g glycated HSA. The inter- and intra-day assays with coefficients of variation less than 20 % indicated good assay performance and precision. Assay evaluation was based on plasma samples from diabetic and non-diabetic subjects with known HSAK414 glycation levels previously determined by LC-MS. Both data sets correlated very well. In conclusion, the generated mAb 50D8 and the established ELISA could be a valuable tool for the rapid quantitation of glycation site HSAK414 in plasma samples to evaluate its clinical relevance.

Transport of Zinc-Phthalocyanine to Cancer Cells Using Myoglobin-Albumin Fusion Protein for Photodynamic Therapy.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a noninvasive approach to cancer treatment, wherein cell death is initiated by singlet oxygen (1O2) production via energy transfer from excited photosensitizers to ground-state O2. Effective clinical photosensitizers necessitate water solubility for in vivo administration. Hydrophobic dyes, such as phthalocyanines, cannot be used directly as photosensitizers. Herein, we synthesized a myoglobin-(human serum albumin) fusion protein reconstituted with zinc-phthalocyanine (ZnPc), termed ZnPcMb-HSA. The photophysical properties of ZnPcMb-HSA closely resemble those of ZnPc-substituted Mb. Notably, ZnPc dissociates from ZnPcMb-HSA and selectively accumulates within cancer cells, while the protein components remain extracellular. Treatment of four distinct cell lines with ZnPcMb-HSA, followed by red-light irradiation, effectively induced apoptosis. The half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC50) against these cancer cell lines ranged between 0.1-0.5 µM. Reconstituted Mb-HSA emerges as a promising carrier for transporting various water-insoluble porphyrinoid photosensitizer to target cancer cells in PDT applications.

Investigation of steric hindrance effect on the interactions between four alkaloids and HSA by isothermal titration calorimetry and molecular docking.

The binding of four alkaloids with human serum albumin (HSA) was investigated by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC), spectroscopy and molecular docking techniques. The findings demonstrated that theophylline or caffeine can bind to HAS, respectively. The number of binding sites and binding constants are obtained. The binding mode is a static quenching process. The effects of steric hindrance, temperature, salt concentration and buffer solution on the binding indicated that theophylline and HSA have higher binding affinity than caffeine. The fluorescence and ITC results showed that the interaction between HSA and theophylline or caffeine is an entropy-driven spontaneous exothermic process. The hydrophobic force was the primary driving factor. The experimental results were consistent with the molecular docking data. Based on the molecular structures of the four alkaloids, steric hindrance might be a major factor in the binding between HSA and these four alkaloids. This study elucidates the mechanism of interactions between four alkaloids and HSA.

Biophysical and structural characterization of tetramethrin serum protein complex and its toxicological implications.

Tetramethrin (TMT) is a commonly used insecticide and has a carcinogenic and neurodegenerative effect on humans. The binding mechanism and toxicological implications of TMT to human serum albumin (HSA) were examined in this study employing a combination of biophysical and computational methods indicating moderate binding affinity and potential hepato and renal toxicity. Fluorescence quenching experiments showed that TMT binds to HSA with a moderate affinity, and the binding process was spontaneous and predominantly enthalpy-driven. Circular dichroism spectroscopy revealed that TMT binding did not induce any significant conformational changes in HSA, resulting in no changes in its alpha-helix content. The binding site and modalities of TMT interactions with HSA as computed by molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations revealed that it binds to Sudlow site II of HSA via hydrophobic interactions through its dimethylcyclopropane carboxylate methyl propanyl group. The structural dynamics of TMT induce proper fit into the binding site creating increased and stabilizing interactions. Additionally, molecular mechanics-Poisson Boltzmann surface area calculations also indicated that non-polar and van der Waals were found to be the major contributors to the high binding free energy of the complex. Quantum mechanics (QM) revealed the conformational energies of the binding confirmation and the degree of deviation from the global minimum energy conformation of TMT. The results of this study provide a comprehensive understanding of the binding mechanism of TMT with HSA, which is important for evaluating the toxicity of this insecticide in humans.

Defining albumin as a glycoprotein with multiple N-linked glycosylation sites.

BACKGROUND: Glycosylation is an enzyme-catalyzed post-translational modification that is distinct from glycation and is present on a majority of plasma proteins. N-glycosylation occurs on asparagine residues predominantly within canonical N-glycosylation motifs (Asn-X-Ser/Thr) although non-canonical N-glycosylation motifs Asn-X-Cys/Val have also been reported. Albumin is the most abundant protein in plasma whose glycation is well-studied in diabetes mellitus. However, albumin has long been considered a non-glycosylated protein due to absence of canonical motifs. Albumin contains two non-canonical N-glycosylation motifs, of which one was recently reported to be glycosylated. METHODS: We enriched abundant serum proteins to investigate their N-linked glycosylation followed by trypsin digestion and glycopeptide enrichment by size-exclusion or mixed-mode anion-exchange chromatography. Glycosylation at canonical as well as non-canonical sites was evaluated by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) of enriched glycopeptides. Deglycosylation analysis was performed to confirm N-linked glycosylation at non-canonical sites. Albumin-derived glycopeptides were fragmented by MS3 to confirm attached glycans. Parallel reaction monitoring was carried out on twenty additional samples to validate these findings. Bovine and rabbit albumin-derived glycopeptides were similarly analyzed by LC-MS/MS. RESULTS: Human albumin is N-glycosylated at two non-canonical sites, Asn68 and Asn123. N-glycopeptides were detected at both sites bearing four complex sialylated glycans and validated by MS3-based fragmentation and deglycosylation studies. Targeted mass spectrometry confirmed glycosylation in twenty additional donor samples. Finally, the highly conserved Asn123 in bovine and rabbit serum albumin was also found to be glycosylated. CONCLUSIONS: Albumin is a glycoprotein with conserved N-linked glycosylation sites that could have potential clinical applications.

Separation of recombinant erythropoietin and human serum albumin without the use of sophisticated equipment.

A number of drugs based on recombinant erythropoietin contain human serum albumin as an auxiliary component. The presence of this protein hinders the proper control of the drug quality in accordance with the requirements of regulating agencies. We propose the novel method for separation of recombinant erythropoietin (epoetin beta) and human serum albumin. It is based on the subsequent use of hydrophobic sorbent and anion exchange resin placed in gravity flow columns (without the use of spin-columns). The proposed approach makes it possible to concentrate and purify the preparations containing the epoetin beta both at high and at minimal concentrations (the ratio of the amount of albumin and erythropoietin in the used preparations can reach 125:1). The average yield of epoetin beta after the use of hydrophobic sorbent and anion exchange resin was 75% and 97%, respectively. It was shown that the determined conditions of sample preparation had no affect on the content of the epoetin beta in the product.

Multispectroscopic and Theoretical Investigation on the Binding Interaction of a Neurodegenerative Drug, Lobeline with Human Serum Albumin: Perturbation in Protein Conformation and Hydrophobic-Hydrophilic Surface.

Lobeline (LOB), a naturally occurring alkaloid, has a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities and therapeutic potential, including applications in central nervous system disorders, drug misuse, multidrug resistance, smoking cessation, depression, and epilepsy. LOB represents a promising compound for developing treatments in various medical fields. However, despite extensive pharmacological profiling, the biophysical interaction between the LOB and proteins remains largely unexplored. In the current article, a range of complementary photophysical and cheminformatics methodologies were applied to study the interaction mechanism between LOB and the carrier protein HSA. Steady-state fluorescence and fluorescence lifetime experiments confirmed the static-quenching mechanisms in the HSA-LOB system. "K" (binding constant) of the HSA-LOB system was determined to be 105 M-1, with a single preferable binding site in HSA. The forces governing the HSA-LOB stable complex were analyzed by thermodynamic parameters and electrostatic contribution. The research also investigated how various metal ions affect complex binding. Site-specific binding studies depict Site I as probable binding in HSA by LOB. We conducted synchronous fluorescence, 3D fluorescence, and circular dichroism studies to explore the structural alteration occurring in the microenvironment of amino acids. To understand the robustness of the HSA-LOB complex, we used theoretical approaches, including molecular docking and MD simulations, and analyzed the principal component analysis and free energy landscape. These comprehensive studies of the structural features of biomolecules in ligand binding are of paramount importance for designing targeted drugs and delivery systems.

Transfer of ANS-Like Drugs from Micellar Drug Delivery Systems to Albumin Is Highly Favorable and Protected from Competition with Surfactant by "Reserved" Binding Sites.

Micellar drug delivery systems (MDDS) for the intravenous administration of poorly soluble drugs have great advantages over alternative formulations in terms of the safety of their excipients, storage stability, and straightforward production. A classic example is mixed micelles of glycocholate (GC) and lecithin, both endogenous substances in human blood. What limits the use of MDDS is the complexity of the transitions after injection. In particular, as the MDDS disintegrate partially or completely after injection, the drug has to be transferred safely to endogenous carriers in the blood, such as human serum albumin (HSA). If this transfer is compromised, the drug might precipitate─a process that needs to be excluded under all circumstances. The key question of this paper is whether the high local concentration of GC at the moment and site of MDDS dissolution might transiently saturate HSA binding sites and, hence, endanger quick drug transfer. To address this question, we have used a new approach, which is time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy of the single tryptophan in HSA, Trp-214, to characterize the competitive binding of GC and the drug substitute anilinonaphthalenesulfonate (ANS) to HSA. Time-resolved fluorescence of Trp-214 showed important advantages over established methods for tackling this problem. ANS has been the standard "model drug" to study albumin binding for decades, given its structural similarity to the class of naphthalene-containing acidic drugs and the fact that it is displaced from HSA by numerous drugs (which presumably bind to the same sites). Our complex global fit uses the critical approximation that the average lifetimes behave similarly to a single lifetime, but the resulting errors are found to be moderate and the results provide a convincing explanation of the, at first glance, counterintuitive behavior. Accordingly, and largely in line with the literature, we observed two types of sites binding ANS at HSA: 3 type A, rather peripheral, and 2 type B, likely more central sites. The latter quench Trp-214 by Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) with a rate constant of ≈0.4 ns-1 per ANS. Adding millimolar concentrations of GC displaces ANS from the A sites but not from B sites. At incomplete ANS saturation, this causes a GC-induced translocation of ANS from A to the more FRET-active B sites. This leads to the apparent paradox that the partial displacement of ANS from HSA increases its quenching effect on Trp-214. The most important conclusion is that (ANS-like) drugs cannot be displaced from the type-B sites, and consequently, drug transfer to these sites is not impaired by competitive binding of GC in the vicinity of a dissolving micelle. The second conclusion is that for unbound GC above the CMC (9 mM), ANS equilibrates between HSA and GC micelles but with a strong preference for free sites on HSA. That means that even persisting micelles would lose their cargo readily once exposed to HSA. For all MDDS sharing this property, targeted drug delivery approaches involving them as the nanocarrier would be pointless.

Binding of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) to Serum Proteins: Implications for Toxicokinetics in Humans.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a diverse class of highly persistent anthropogenic chemicals that are detectable in the serum of most humans. PFAS exposure has been associated with many adverse effects on human health including immunotoxicity, increased risk of certain cancers, and metabolic disruption. PFAS binding to the most abundant blood serum proteins (human serum albumin [HSA] and globulins) is thought to affect transport to active sites, toxicity, and elimination half-lives. However, few studies have investigated the competitive binding of PFAS to these proteins in human serum. Here, we use C18 solid-phase microextraction fibers to measure HSA-water and globulin-water distribution coefficients (DHSA/w, Dglob/w) for PFAS with carbon chains containing 4 to 13 perfluorinated carbons (ηpfc = 4-13) and several functional head-groups. PFAS with ηpfc < 7 were highly bound to HSA relative to globulins, whereas PFAS with ηpfc ≥ 7 showed a greater propensity for binding to globulins. Experimentally measured DHSA/w and Dglob/w and concentrations of serum proteins successfully predicted the variability in PFAS binding in human serum. We estimated that the unbound fraction of serum PFAS varied by up to a factor of 2.5 among individuals participating in the 2017-2018 U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. These results suggest that serum HSA and globulins are important covariates for epidemiological studies aimed at understanding the effects of PFAS exposure.

Binding studies of promethazine and its metabolites with human serum albumin by high-performance affinity chromatography and molecular docking in the presence of codeine.

"Purple Drank", a soft drink containing promethazine (PMZ) and codeine (COD), has gained global popularity for its hallucinogenic effects. Consuming large amounts of this combination can lead to potentially fatal events. The binding of these drugs to plasma proteins can exacerbate the issue by increasing the risk of drug interactions, side effects, and/or toxicity. Herein, the binding affinity to human serum albumin (HSA) of PMZ and its primary metabolites [N-desmethyl promethazine (DMPMZ) and promethazine sulphoxide (PMZSO)], along with COD, was investigated by high-performance affinity chromatography (HPAC) though zonal approach. PMZ and its metabolites exhibited a notable binding affinity for HSA (%b values higher than 80%), while COD exhibited a %b value of 65%. To discern the specific sites of HSA to which these compounds were bound, displacement experiments were performed using warfarin and (S)-ibuprofen as probes for sites I and II, respectively, which revealed that all analytes were bound to both sites. Molecular docking studies corroborated the experimental results, reinforcing the insights gained from the empirical data. The in silico data also suggested that competition between PMZ and its metabolites with COD can occur in both sites of HSA, but mainly in site II. As the target compounds are chiral, the enantioselectivity for HSA binding was also explored, showing that the binding for these compounds was not enantioselective.

Human serum albumin as a potential drug delivery system for N-methylated hot spot insulin analogs inhibiting hormone aggregation.

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether Human Serum Albumin (HSA) can bind N-methylated analogs of hot spots of native insulin. Three N-methylated derivatives of the A13-A19 fragment of native insulin were used: L(N-Me)YQLENY (1), LYQ(N-Me)LENY (2), and L(N-Me)YQ(N-Me)LENY (3). The studied N-methylated insulin fragments possess inhibiting potential against hormone aggregation. A variety of research techniques, including spectroscopic methods and microscopy assays, were used to study the interaction of HSA with the N-methylated insulin fragments. Based on spectroscopic measurements with Congo Red and Thioflavin T, all the analyzed N-methylated peptides were able to interact with the HSA surface. The CD spectrum registered for HSA in the presence of L(N-Me)YQLENY showed the smallest content of α-helix conformation, indicating the most compact HSA structure. Based on the results of MST, the dissociation constants (Kd) for complexes of HSA and peptides 1-3 were 19.2 nM (complex 1), 15.6 nM (complex 2), and 8.07 nM (complex 3). Microscopy assays, dynamic light scattering measurements as well as computer simulation of protein-ligand interaction also confirmed the possibility of docking the N-methylated inhibitors within HSA.

The binding selectivity of quercetin and its structure-related polyphenols to human serum albumin using a fluorescent dye cocktail for multiplex drug-site mapping.

Human serum albumin (HSA) is a serum protein that carries flavonoids in blood circulation. In this report, the binding selectivity and strength of interactions to HSA-binding sites (sites I or II) by flavonoids were evaluated using competition experiments and the specific fluorescent dyes, dansylamide and BD140. Most tested flavonoids bound site I preferentially, with the binding strength dependent on the mother structure in the order flavonol > flavone > flavanone > flavan 3-ols. Glycosylation or glucuronidation reduced the binding of quercetin to site I of HSA, whereas sulfation increased binding. Quercetin 7-sulfate showed the strongest binding and molecular docking simulations supported this observation. Prenylation at any position or glucuronidation and sulfation at the C-4' or C-7 position of quercetin facilitated stronger binding to site II. The binding affinity of flavonoids toward site I correlated with the partition coefficient value (logP), whereas no corresponding correlation was observed for site II.

Development of D-π-A organic dyes for discriminating HSA from BSA and study on dye-HSA interaction.

HSA (human serum albumin), a most abundant protein in blood serum, plays a key role in maintaining human health. Abnormal HSA level is correlated with many diseases, and thus has been used as an essential biomarker for therapeutic monitoring and biomedical diagnosis. Development of small-molecule fluorescent probes allowing the selective and sensitive recognition of HSA in in vitro and in vivo is of fundamental importance in basic biological research as well as medical diagnosis. Herein, we reported a series of new synthesized fluorescent dyes containing D-π-A constitution, which exhibited different optical properties in solution and solid state. Among them, dye M-H-SO3 with a hydrophilic sulfonate group at electron-acceptor part displayed selectivity for discrimination of HSA from BSA and other enzymes. Upon binding of dye M-H-SO3 with HSA, a significant fluorescence enhancement with a turn-on ratio about 96-fold was triggered. The detection limit was estimated to be âˆ¼ 40 nM. Studies on the interaction mechanism revealed that dye M-H-SO3 could bind to site III of HSA with a 1:1 binding stoichiometry. Furthermore, dye M-H-SO3 has been applied to determine HSA in real urine samples with good recoveries, which provided a useful method for HSA analysis in biological fluids.

Possible Involvement of Protein Binding Inhibition in Changes in Dexmedetomidine Concentration in Extracorporeal Circuits during Midazolam Use.

It was recently reported that the dexmedetomidine concentration within the extracorporeal circuit decreases with co-administration of midazolam. In this study, we investigated whether displacement of dexmedetomidine by midazolam from the binding site of major plasma proteins, human serum albumin (HSA) and α1-acid glycoprotein (AAG), would increase levels of free dexmedetomidine that could be adsorbed to the circuit. Equilibrium dialysis experiments indicated that dexmedetomidine binds to a single site on both HSA and AAG with four times greater affinity than midazolam. Midazolam-mediated inhibition of the binding of dexmedetomidine to HSA and AAG was also examined. The binding of dexmedetomidine to these proteins decreased in the presence of midazolam. Competitive binding experiments suggested that the inhibition of binding by midazolam was due to competitive displacement at site II of HSA and due to non-competitive displacement at the site of AAG. Thus, our present data indicate that free dexmedetomidine displaced by midazolam from site II of HSA or from AAG is adsorbed onto extracorporeal circuits, resulting in a change in the dexmedetomidine concentration within the circuit.

Chiral separation of propranolol by electrokinetic chromatography using nanodiamonds and human serum albumin as a pseudo-stationary phase in river water.

Propranolol is currently considered as an emerging contaminant in water bodies. In this study, R- and S-propranolol were determined in river samples by electrokinetic chromatography (EKC) using nanodiamonds (NDs) and human serum albumin (HSA) as a pseudo-stationary phase in order to achieve enantioseparation. Previously, river samples were preconcentrated using a column filled with Amberlite® IR-120 and Dowex® 50WX8 resins. The setting up of influential factors such as temperature, voltage, pH, and HSA and NDs concentration is accurately described along this manuscript. A multivariate study and optimization was carried out to obtain the enantioseparation of propranolol (Rs = 2.91), which was reached under the following experimental conditions: voltage of 16 kV, temperature of 16°C, phosphate buffer pH 9.5, NDs of 0.20%, and HSA of 15 µmol l-1 . The recoveries of analytes under optimal conditions were higher than 98%. The limits of detection were 0.85 µg l-1 for R- and S-propranolol. The method was applied to real samples, and the obtained results in three different water sources studied were 1.02, 0.59, and 0.30 µg l-1 for the R-enantiomer and 0.99, 0.54, and 0.28 µg l-1 for the S-enantiomer. The accuracy of the proposed methodology (including bias and precision) has allowed us to propose it as a successful tool for the control of water quality.

Contactless conductivity detector as a tool for improving universality and sensitivity of capillary electrophoresis-frontal analysis: Proof of concept.

Drug binding to plasma proteins influences processes such as liberation, adsorption, disposition, metabolism, and elimination of drugs, which are thus one of the key steps of a new drug development. As a result, the characterization of drug-protein interactions is an essential part of these time- and money-consuming processes. It is important to determine not only the binding strength and the stoichiometry of interaction, but also the binding site of a drug on a protein molecule, because two drugs with the same binding site can mutually affect free drug concentration. Capillary electrophoresis-frontal analysis with mobility shift affinity capillary electrophoresis is one of the most used affinity capillary electrophoresis methods for the characterization of these interactions. In this study, a well-known sensitivity problem of most capillary electrophoresis-frontal analyses using ultraviolet detection is solved by its combination with contactless conductivity detection, which provided sixfold lower limits of quantitation and detection. Binding parameters of the human serum albumin-salicylic acid model affinity pair were evaluated by this newly developed approach and by the classical approach with ultraviolet detection primarily used for their mutual comparison. The results of both approaches agreed well and are also in agreement with literature data obtained using different techniques.

Insights into interaction of triazine herbicides with three kinds of different alkyl groups (simetryne, ametryn and terbutryn) with human serum albumin via multi-spectral analysis.

In this study, the interaction of triazine herbicides with three kinds of different alkyl groups (simetryne, ametryn and terbutryn) with human serum albumin (HSA) are investigated through UV-vis, fluorescence, and circular dichroism (CD) spectra. The mechanisms on the fluorescence quenching of HSA initiated by triazine herbicides are obtained using Stern-Volmer, Lineweaver-Burk and Double logarithm equations. The quenching rate constant (Kq), Stern-Volmer quenching constant (Ksv), binding constant (KA), thermodynamic parameters such as enthalpy change (∆H), entropy change (∆S) and Gibbs free energy (∆G) and number of binding site (n) are calculated and compared. The variations in the microenvironment of amino acid residues are studied by synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy. The binding sites and subdomains are identified using warfarin and ibuprofen as site probes. The conformational changes of HSA are measured using CD spectra. The results reveal that the triazine herbicides with different alkyl groups can interact with HSA by static quenching. The combination of the three herbicides and HSA are equally proportional, and the binding processes are spontaneous. Hydrophobic interaction forces play important roles in simetryne-HSA and ametryn-HSA, while the interaction of terbutryn-HSA is Van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonding. Moreover, the three herbicides can bind to HSA at site I (sub-domain IIA) more than site II (subdomain IIIA), and combine with tryptophan (Trp) more easily than tyrosine (Tyr) residues, respectively. By comparison, the order of interaction strength is terbutryn-HSA > ametryn-HSA > simetryne-HSA. Terbutryn can destroy the secondary structure of HSA more than simetryne and ametryn, and the potential toxicity of terbutryn is higher. It is expected that the interactions of triazine herbicides with HSA via multi-spectral analysis can offer some valuable information for studying the toxicity and the harm of triazine herbicides on human health at molecular level in life science.

Spectroscopic investigation and structural simulation in human serum albumin with hydroxychloroquine/Silybum marianum and a possible potential COVID-19 drug candidate.

In this study, the interaction between human serum albumin (HSA) and the hydroxychloroquine/Silybum marianum (HCQ/SM) mixture was investigated using various techniques. The observed high binding constant (Kb) and Stern-Volmer quenching constant (KSV) indicate a strong binding affinity between the HCQ/SM mixture and HSA. The circular dichroism (CD) analysis revealed that HCQ/SM induced conformational changes in the secondary structure of HSA, leading to a decrease in the α-helical content. UV-Vis analysis exhibited a slight redshift, indicating that the HCQ/SM mixture could adapt to the flexible structure of HSA. The experimental results demonstrated the significant conformational changes in HSA upon binding with HCQ/SM. Theoretical studies were carried out using molecular dynamics simulation via the Gromacs simulation package to explore insights into the drug interaction with HSA-binding sites. Furthermore, molecular docking studies demonstrated that HCQ/SM-HSA exhibited favorable docking scores with the receptor (5FUZ), suggesting a potential therapeutic relevance in combating COVID-19 with a value of -6.24 kcal mol-1. HCQ/SM exhibited stronger interaction with both SARS-CoV-2 virus main proteases compared to favipiravir. Ultimately, the experimental data and molecular docking analysis presented in this research offer valuable insights into the pharmaceutical and biological properties of HCQ/SM mixtures when interacting with serum albumin.