Status of Fishery Discards and By-Products in Greece and Potential Valorization Scenarios towards a National Exploitation Master Plan.

The valorization of aquaculture/fishery processing by-products, as well as unavoidable/unwanted catches and discards in Greece, is currently an underutilized activity despite the fact that there are several best practices in Northern Europe and overseas. One of the main challenges is to determine whether the available quantities for processing are sufficient to warrant the valorization of discards and fish side streams. This is the first attempt to systematically record and analyze the available quantities of fish by-products and discards in Greece spatially and temporally in an effort to create a national exploitation Master Plan for the valorization of this unavoidable and unwanted biomass. A thorough survey conducted within the VIOAXIOPIO project unveiled a substantial biomass of around 19,000 tonnes annually that could be harnessed for valorization. Furthermore, the production of various High-Added-Value Biomolecules (HAVBs) was investigated and experimental trials were conducted to assess the potential yields, with the collected data used to formulate four valorization scenarios.

Identification of Marine Biotechnology Value Chains with High Potential in the Northern Mediterranean Region.

Marine (blue) biotechnology is an emerging field enabling the valorization of new products and processes with massive potential for innovation and economic growth. In the Mediterranean region, this innovation potential is not exploited as well as in other European regions due to a lack of a clear identification of the different value chains and the high fragmentation of business innovation initiatives. As a result, several opportunities to create an innovative society are being missed. To address this problem, eight Northern Mediterranean countries (Croatia, France, Greece, Italy, Montenegro, Portugal, Slovenia and Spain) established five national blue biotechnology hubs to identify and address the bottlenecks that prevent the development of marine biotechnology in the region. Following a three-step approach (1. Analysis: setting the scene; 2. Transfer: identification of promising value chains; 3. Capitalization: community creation), we identified the three value chains that are most promising for the Northern Mediterranean region: algae production for added-value compounds, integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) and valorization aquaculture/fisheries/processing by-products, unavoidable/unwanted catches and discards. The potential for the development and the technical and non-technical skills that are necessary to advance in this exciting field were identified through several stakeholder events which provided valuable insight and feedback that should be addressed for marine biotechnology in the Northern Mediterranean region to reach its full potential.

Sequential Extraction of Valuable Bio-Products from Snow Crab (Chionoecetes opilio) Processing Discards Using Eco-Friendly Methods.

Green extraction methods using a combination of mechanical, enzymatic, and green chemical treatments were evaluated for the sequential extraction of carotenoid pigments, protein, and chitin from crab processing discards. Key objectives included avoiding the use of hazardous chemical solvents, conducting as close to a 100% green extraction as possible, and developing simple processes to facilitate implementation into processing plants without the need for complicated and expensive equipment. Three crab bio-products were obtained: pigmented vegetable oil, pigmented protein powder, and chitin. Carotenoid extractions were performed using vegetable oils (corn, canola, and sunflower oils), giving between 24.85% and 37.93% astaxanthin recovery. Citric acid was used to demineralize the remaining material and afforded a pigmented protein powder. Three different proteases were used to deproteinate and isolate chitin in yields between 17.06% and 19.15%. The chitin was still highly colored and therefore decolorization was attempted using hydrogen peroxide. Characterization studies were conducted on each of the crab bio-products isolated including powder X-ray diffraction analysis on the chitin (80.18% crystallinity index, CI, achieved using green methods). Overall, three valuable bio-products could be obtained but further research is needed to obtain pigment-free chitin in an environmentally friendly manner.

Exploring morphometric frontiers: A comprehensive study of otolith growth patterns in brown comber Serranus hepatus (Linnaeus, 1758).

Otoliths are widely employed in marine sciences to gain insights into fish growth, age, migrations, and population structure. This study investigates the relationships between morphometric measurements, otolith characteristics, and length size patterns in the brown comber (Serranus hepatus) from the Gulf of Cádiz, a species discarded in artisanal trawl fisheries. Our findings reveal significant changes in otolith shape indices as fish grow, with symmetry observed between left and right otolith measurements. Otolith size is found to be related to fish size, supporting its use in estimating body length at different life stages. Otolith shape analysis has potential applications in stock identification, detecting catch misreporting, and studying marine predator diets. Combining otolith shape analysis with other data types can clarify relationships among taxa and inform spatial management strategies, contributing to the long-term sustainability of fish populations and the assessment of the impact of management strategies on fish size and growth. This study enhances our understanding of the broader implications of morphometric and otolith analyses in fisheries research and supports the development of more sustainable fisheries management practices.

Presence of pharmaceuticals and bacterial resistance genes in river epilithic biofilms exposed to intense agricultural and urban pressure.

The continuous discharge of pharmaceutical compounds into the aquatic environment has raised concerns over the contamination of water resources. Urban activities and intensive animal breeding are important sources of contamination. The accumulation of antibiotics may lead to the transfer or alternatively maintain the presence of resistance genes in natural microbial communities existing in epilithic biofilms. The objective of this study was to evaluate the pharmaceutical contamination levels and the presence of resistance genes in biofilms from a South Brazilian watershed. The Guaporé watershed exhibits a high diversity of land use, including agricultural and urban areas with differing levels of anthropogenic pressure. Seventeen sites along the Guaporé watershed were monitored. Biofilm samples were collected in two seasons (winter and summer), and the pharmaceutical concentration and quantity of resistance genes were analyzed. All monitored sites were contaminated with pharmaceuticals. Agricultural activities contribute through transferring pharmaceuticals derived from the application of animal waste to agricultural fields. The most contaminated site (pharmaceuticals and bacterial resistance genes) was located in an urban area exposed to high pressure. Decreases in the contamination of biofilms were also observed, exemplifying processes of natural attenuation in the watershed. The quality of the biofilms sampled throughout the watershed served as a useful tool to understand and monitor environmental pollution.

Potential Cosmetic Active Ingredients Derived from Marine By-Products.

The market demand for marine-based cosmetics has shown a tremendous growth rate in the last decade. Marine resources represent a promising source of novel bioactive compounds for new cosmetic ingredient development. However, concern about sustainability also becomes an issue that should be considered in developing cosmetic ingredients. The fisheries industry (e.g., fishing, farming, and processing) generates large amounts of leftovers containing valuable substances, which are potent sources of cosmeceutical ingredients. Several bioactive substances could be extracted from the marine by-product that can be utilized as a potent ingredient to develop cosmetics products. Those bioactive substances (e.g., collagen from fish waste and chitin from crustacean waste) could be utilized as anti-photoaging, anti-wrinkle, skin barrier, and hair care products. From this perspective, this review aims to approach the potential active ingredients derived from marine by-products for cosmetics and discuss the possible activity of those active ingredients in promoting human beauty. In addition, this review also covers the prospect and challenge of using marine by-products toward the emerging concept of sustainable blue cosmetics.

Novel α-Amylase Inhibitor Hemi-Pyocyanin Produced by Microbial Conversion of Chitinous Discards.

α-Amylase inhibitors (aAIs) have been applied for the efficient management of type 2 diabetes. The aim of this study was to search for potential aAIs produced by microbial fermentation. Among various bacterial strains, Pseudomonas aeruginosa TUN03 was found to be a potential aAI-producing strain, and shrimp heads powder (SHP) was screened as the most suitable C/N source for fermentation. P. aeruginosa TUN03 exhibited the highest aAIs productivity (3100 U/mL) in the medium containing 1.5% SHP with an initial pH of 7-7.5, and fermentation was performed at 27.5 °C for two days. Further, aAI compounds were investigated for scaled-up production in a 14 L-bioreactor system. The results revealed a high yield (4200 U/mL) in a much shorter fermentation time (12 h) compared to fermentation in flasks. Bioactivity-guided purification resulted in the isolation of one major target compound, identified as hemi-pyocyanin (HPC) via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance. Its purity was analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. HPC demonstrated potent α-amylase inhibitory activity comparable to that of acarbose, a commercial antidiabetic drug. Notably, HPC was determined as a new aAI. The docking study indicated that HPC inhibits α-amylase by binding to amino acid Arg421 at the biding site on enzyme α-amylase with good binding energy (-9.3 kcal/mol) and creating two linkages of H-acceptors.

Protein hydrolysates derived from aquaculture and marine byproducts through autolytic hydrolysis.

Autolysis technology has shown potential for protein hydrolysates production from marine and aquaculture byproducts. Viscera are a source of cheap proteolytic enzymes for producing protein hydrolysates from the whole fish or processing byproducts of the most valuable commercial species by applying autolysis technology. The use of autolysis allows economical production of protein hydrolysate and provides an opportunity to valorize downstream fish and shellfish processing byproducts at a lower cost. As a result, production and application of marine byproduct autolysates is increasing in the global protein hydrolysates market. Nevertheless, several restrictions occur with autolysis, including lipid and protein oxidation mediated by the heterogeneous composition of byproducts. The generally poor storage and handling of byproducts may increase the formation of undesirable metabolites during autolysis, which can be harmful. The formation of nitrogenous compounds (i.e., biogenic amines), loss of freshness, and process of autolysis in the byproducts could increase the rate of quality and safety loss and lead to more significant concern about the use of autolysates for human food applications. The current review focuses on the autolysis process, which is applied for the hydrolysis of aquaculture and marine discards to obtain peptides as functional or nutritive ingredients. It further addresses the latest findings on the mechanisms and factors contributing the deterioration of byproducts and possible ways to control oxidation and other food quality and safety issues in raw materials and protein hydrolysates.

We listed patients and we should transplant them.

Twenty percent of kidneys recovered for transplantation are discarded. The most common reason for not transplanting these kidneys is to organ quality and biopsy findings. Yet, organ quality measures are not associated with discard rates and kidneys with poorer quality measures lead to greater life span for the recipient compared to staying on dialysis. Biopsy findings are not correlated with graft survival in most cases. The risk aversion of transplant centers from using "high-risk" kidneys can be, in part at least, attributed to negative consequences of poor graft survival with possible program sanctions or possible loss of insurance contracts. CMS has taken a first step by eliminating short-term graft survival as a performance measure for transplant centers. Many of the discarded kidneys will provide good results if transplanted and would recognize that patients value getting a transplant above graft survival.

Nutritional Profiling and the Value of Processing By-Products from Gilthead Sea Bream (Sparus aurata).

Fish processing industries generate a large volume of discards. In order to fulfil with the principles of a sustainable circular economy, it is necessary to maintain aquaculture by-products in the food chain through the production of high-value biomolecules that can be used as novel ingredients. In this study, we try to give value to the gilthead sea bream by-products, evaluating the composition and the nutritional value of the muscle and six discards commonly obtained from the fish processing industry (fishbone, gills, guts, heads, liver, and skin), which represent ≈ 61% of the whole fish. Significant differences were detected among muscle and by-products for fatty acid and amino acid profile, as well as mineral content. The discards studied were rich in protein (10%-25%), showing skin and fishbone to have the highest contents. The amino acid profile reflected the high quality of its protein, with 41%-49% being essential amino acids-lysine, leucine, and arginine were the most abundant amino acids. Guts, liver, and skin were the fattiest by-products (25%-35%). High contents of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) (31%-34%), n-3 fatty acids (12%-14%), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) + docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (6%-8%) characterized these discards. The head displayed by far the highest ash content (9.14%), which was reflected in the mineral content, especially in calcium and phosphorous. These results revealed that gilthead sea bream by-products can be used as source of value-added products such as protein, oils, and mineral supplements.

Marine Collagen from Alternative and Sustainable Sources: Extraction, Processing and Applications.

Due to its unique properties, collagen is used in the growing fields of pharmaceutical and biomedical devices, as well as in the fields of nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, food and beverages. Collagen also represents a valid resource for bioplastics and biomaterials, to be used in the emerging health sectors. Recently, marine organisms have been considered as promising sources of collagen, because they do not harbor transmissible disease. In particular, fish biomass as well as by-catch organisms, such as undersized fish, jellyfish, sharks, starfish, and sponges, possess a very high collagen content. The use of discarded and underused biomass could contribute to the development of a sustainable process for collagen extraction, with a significantly reduced environmental impact. This addresses the European zero-waste strategy, which supports all three generally accepted goals of sustainability: sustainable economic well-being, environmental protection, and social well-being. A zero-waste strategy would use far fewer new raw materials and send no waste materials to landfills. In this review, we present an overview of the studies carried out on collagen obtained from by-catch organisms and fish wastes. Additionally, we discuss novel technologies based on thermoplastic processes that could be applied, likewise, as marine collagen treatment.

Characterization and potential strategies for the valorisation of the Southwest Atlantic butterfish (Stromateus brasiliensis).

The waste of fish resources constitutes a serious environmental problem that must be avoided. The valorisation of by-catch species and decreasing the discard rate constitute a more efficient and sustainable use of these marine biomasses. In this work, we characterize and propose different potential uses for Stromateus brasiliensis, another frequently discarded (≥ 90%) and poorly studied by-catch species captured in the South Atlantic Ocean (FAO 41) by trawler fishing fleets. Furthermore, in the case of this species, freezing and frozen storage of the whole fish is the only strategy currently employed for its exploitation. The results revealed that muscle from S. brasiliensis presented a high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (20.34%) and that the concentrations of both total diacyl glyceryl ethers (2.41%) and heavy metals (Hg 0.038, Pb 0.006 and Cd 0.018 mg/kg) were below the established limits for safe human consumption. Likewise, the protein hydrolysates proved to be a good source of amino acids for human consumption or animal feeding. Minced muscle blocks could be made by a mechanical separation process of the flesh, and the composition of minced muscle did not differ much from that of the whole fish. Furthermore, this process allows the incorporation of cryoprotectants and antioxidants to extend the frozen shelf life of this fatty fish. An extraction process from mechanically mixed skin and bones yielded a good source of collagen that should not be neglected.

Production of Valuable Compounds and Bioactive Metabolites from By-Products of Fish Discards Using Chemical Processing, Enzymatic Hydrolysis, and Bacterial Fermentation.

The objective of this report was to investigate the isolation and recovery of different biocompounds and bioproducts from wastes (skins and heads) that were obtained from five species discarded by fishing fleets (megrim, hake, boarfish, grenadier, and Atlantic horse mackerel). Based on chemical treatments, enzymatic hydrolysis, and bacterial fermentation, we have isolated and produced gelatinous solutions, oils that are rich in omega-3, fish protein hydrolysates (FPHs) with antioxidant and antihypertensive activities, and peptones. FPHs showed degrees of hydrolysis higher than 13%, with soluble protein concentrations greater than 27 g/L and in vitro digestibilities superior to 90%. Additionally, amino acids compositions were always valuable and bioactivities were, in some cases, remarkable. Peptones that were obtained from FPHs of skin and the heads were demonstrated to be a viable alternative to expensive commercial ones indicated for the production of biomass, lactic acid, and pediocin SA-1 from Pediococcus acidilactici.

Collagen Extraction Optimization from the Skin of the Small-Spotted Catshark (S. canicula) by Response Surface Methodology.

The small-spotted catshark is one of the most abundant elasmobranchs in the Northeastern Atlantic Ocean. Although its landings are devoted for human consumption, in general this species has low commercial value with high discard rates, reaching 100% in some European fisheries. The reduction of post-harvest losses (discards and by-products) by promotion of a full use of fishing captures is one of the main goals of EU fishing policies. As marine collagens are increasingly used as alternatives to mammalian collagens for cosmetics, tissue engineering, etc., fish skins represent an excellent and abundant source for obtaining this biomolecule. The aim of this study was to analyze the influence of chemical treatment concentration, temperature and time on the extractability of skin collagen from this species. Two experimental designs, one for each of the main stages of the process, were performed by means of Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The combined effect of NaOH concentration, time and temperature on the amount of collagen recovered in the first stage of the collagen extraction procedure was studied. Then, skins treated under optimal NaOH conditions were subjected to a second experimental design, to study the combined effect of AcOH concentration, time and temperature on the collagen recovery by means of yield, amino acid content and SDS-PAGE characterization. Values of independent variables maximizing collagen recovery were 4 °C, 2 h and 0.1 M NaOH (pre-treatment) and 25 °C, 34 h and 1 M AcOH (collagen extraction).

Bacterial contamination of human skin allografts and antimicrobial resistance: a skin bank problem.

BACKGROUND: Bacterial contamination remains the major problem in skin banks, even after antimicrobial treatment, and results in high rates of tissue discarding. This study aimed to analyze bacterial contamination in 32 human skin allografts from the skin bank of Dr. Roberto Corrêa Chem from the Hospital Complex Santa Casa de Misericórdia de Porto Alegre. These samples were already discarded due to microbial contamination. The identification of the bacteria isolated from skin allografts was performed by matrix assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight. The antimicrobial susceptibility of the isolates to six different classes of antimicrobials was determined using the disk-diffusion agar method, and the evaluation of the inhibitory potential was determined by the minimal inhibitory concentration (50/90) of antimicrobials already used in the skin bank and those that most isolates were susceptible to. RESULTS: A total of 21 (65.6%) skin samples were contaminated with Gram-positive bacteria: 1 (4.7%) with Paenibacillus sp., 12 (61.9%) with Bacillus sp., 6 (28.5%) with Staphylococcus sp., and 2 (9.5%) with Bacillus sp. and Staphylococcus sp. Several resistance profiles, including multiresistance, were found among the isolates. Most of the isolates were susceptible to at least one of the antimicrobials used in the skin bank. All isolates were susceptible to amikacin, gentamicin, and tetracycline, which demonstrated the best inhibitory activities against the isolates and were considered as potential candidates for new antimicrobial treatments. CONCLUSIONS: Bacillus, Paenibacillus, and Staphylococcus were isolated from the skin allografts, thus demonstrating the predominance of Gram-positive bacteria contamination. Other factors not related to the resistance phenotype may also be involved in the persistence of bacterial isolates in the skin allografts after antibiotic treatment. Gentamicin, amikacin, and tetracycline can be considered as an option for a more effective treatment cocktail.

Interactions between commercial fishing vessels and a pelagic seabird in the southern Mediterranean Sea.

BACKGROUND: Fishing activities can influence foraging behaviour of many seabird species worldwide. Seabirds are attracted by fishing vessels which can facilitate access to demersal fish as a novel food resource that otherwise would be unavailable. On the other hand, intense fishing activities cause depletion of fish stocks with a reduction of natural prey available for seabirds. Moreover, fisheries discards can have lower nutritional value than natural prey. However, the importance of fisheries discard for seabirds and the possible implications on their foraging ecology is still poorly understood. In this study, we analysed the interactions of Scopoli's shearwaters (Calonectris diomedea) during their foraging trips with fishing vessels. We combined the GPS and accelerometer data of shearwaters with the GPS data gathered during the same period from fishing vessels. Accelerometers allowed us to identify the main behaviours of birds. RESULTS: The presence of fishing vessels significantly affected the individual behaviour of Scopoli's shearwaters. Birds increased the time spent sitting on the water within 1.28 ± 0.13 km of fishing vessels likely feeding or waiting for discards. Approaches towards vessels within the interaction distance were therefore classified as an interaction and were recorded in about 40% of individuals. Birds interacting with fisheries had longer flight time during their foraging trips and covered longer distances to reach more distant foraging areas compared with individuals not approaching vessels. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggested that fisheries discard consumption might not be a profitable source of food for Scopoli's shearwaters. Despite the high density of fishing vessels in the home range of Scopoli's shearwater, most individuals did not interact with them. Accordingly, scavenging individuals showed a lower foraging efficiency than their conspecifics. Intraspecific competition for foraging areas might play an important role for the foraging decision of birds to consume fisheries discards.

Valorization of recurrently discarded fish species in trawler fisheries in North-West Spain.

The progressive elimination of fish discards established by the European Union Council in 2013 has stimulated the valorization of flesh from discarded high-quality species with good protein functional properties but which frequently have excessive fish-bones, fat, strange flavours, soft texture, etc. The present study therefore focuses on valorization of the extracted muscle (minced muscle), from several fish species frequently discarded in north-western Spanish fisheries (Atlantic Ocean): Blue whiting (Micromesistius poutassou), Mackerel (Scomber scombrus), Red scorpionfish (Scorpaena scrofa), Pouting (Trisoreptus luscus) and Gurnard (Trigla spp.). Valorization of these discarded fish resources is a key objective for the survival of the fishery sector in this area. In this regard present study was planned to examine the behaviour of the mince during 6 months of frozen storage by means of physicochemical and sensory analyses, and to test consumer acceptance of three technologically different products (burgers, nuggets and structured fingers) prepared with fish mince from different species. Results indicated that protein aggregation started at the outset of frozen storage but progressed very slowly, with the exception of non-washed blue whiting and red scorpionfish minces. Moreover, during frozen storage lipid oxidation increased in all samples; the increase was with two objectives highest in minced mackerel, a fatty fish, but no rancid flavour was detected. All mince samples presented acceptable physicochemical properties and good sensory acceptability after 6 months of frozen storage. Acceptability of final products made with these minces was high in all cases. Burgers were more acceptable for consumers aged over 40 and fingers and nuggets more for younger people.

Shark Interactions With Directed and Incidental Fisheries in the Northeast Pacific Ocean: Historic and Current Encounters, and Challenges for Shark Conservation.

For over 100 years, sharks have been encountered, as either directed catch or incidental catch, in commercial fisheries throughout the Northeast Pacific Ocean. A long-standing directed fishery for North Pacific Spiny Dogfish (Squalus suckleyi) has occurred and dominated shark landings and discards. Other fisheries, mainly for shark livers, have historically targeted species including Bluntnose Sixgill Shark (Hexanchus griseus) and Tope Shark (Galeorhinus galeus). While incidental catches of numerous species have occurred historically, only recently have these encounters been reliably enumerated in commercial and recreational fisheries. In this chapter we present shark catch statistics (directed and incidental) for commercial and recreational fisheries from Canadian waters (off British Columbia), southern US waters (off California, Oregon, and Washington), and northern US waters (off Alaska). In total, 17 species of sharks have collectively been encountered in these waters. Fishery encounters present conservation challenges for shark management, namely, the need for accurate catch statistics, stock delineation, life history parameter estimates, and improved assessments methods for population status and trends. Improvements in management and conservation of shark populations will only come with the further development of sound science-based fishery management practices for both targeted and incidental shark fisheries.

Production of Fish Protein Hydrolysates from Scyliorhinus canicula Discards with Antihypertensive and Antioxidant Activities by Enzymatic Hydrolysis and Mathematical Optimization Using Response Surface Methodology.

Fish discards are of major concern in new EU policies. Alternatives for the management of the new biomass that has to be landed is compulsory. The production of bioactive compounds from fish protein hydrolysates (FPH) has been explored in recent years. However, the viability of Scyliorhinus canicula discards, which might account for up to 90-100% of captures in mixed trawler, gillnet, and longline industrial fisheries, to produce FPH from the muscle with bioactivities has still not been studied in terms of the optimization of the experimental conditions to enhance its production. The effect of pH and temperature on the hydrolysis of the S.canicula muscle was mediated by three commercial proteases using response surface methodology. Temperatures of 64.6 °C and 60.8 °C and pHs of 9.40 and 8.90 were established as the best hydrolysis conditions for Alcalase and Esperase, respectively. Optimization of the best conditions for the maximization of antihypertensive and antioxidant activities was performed. Higher Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) activity was found with Esperase. The pH optimum and temperature optimum for antioxidants were 55 °C/pH8.0 for ABTS/DPPH-Esperase, 63.1 °C/pH9.0 for DPPH-Alcalase, and 55 °C/pH9.0 for ABTS-Alcalase. No hydrolysis was detected when using Protamex.

A review of capture and post-release mortality of elasmobranchs.

There is a need to better understand the survivorship of discarded fishes, both for commercial stocks and species of conservation concern. Within European waters, the landing obligations that are currently being phased in as part of the European Union's reformed common fisheries policy means that an increasing number of fish stocks, with certain exceptions, should not be discarded unless it can be demonstrated that there is a high probability of survival. This study reviews the various approaches that have been used to examine the discard survival of elasmobranchs, both in terms of at-vessel mortality (AVM) and post-release mortality (PRM), with relevant findings summarized for both the main types of fishing gear used and by taxonomic group. Discard survival varies with a range of biological attributes (species, size, sex and mode of gill ventilation) as well as the range of factors associated with capture (e.g. gear type, soak time, catch mass and composition, handling practices and the degree of exposure to air and any associated change in ambient temperature). In general, demersal species with buccal-pump ventilation have a higher survival than obligate ram ventilators. Several studies have indicated that females may have a higher survival than males. Certain taxa (including hammerhead sharks Sphyrna spp. and thresher sharks Alopias spp.) may be particularly prone to higher rates of mortality when caught.