A nitrogen isotopic shift in fish otolith-bound organic matter during the Late Cretaceous.

The nitrogen isotopes of the organic matter preserved in fossil fish otoliths (ear stones) are a promising tool for reconstructing past environmental changes. We analyzed the 15N/14N ratio (δ15N) of fossil otolith-bound organic matter in Late Cretaceous fish otoliths (of Eutawichthys maastrichtiensis, Eutawichthys zideki and Pterothrissus sp.) from three deposits along the US east coast, with two of Campanian (83.6 to 77.9 Ma) and one Maastrichtian (72.1 to 66 Ma) age. δ15N and N content were insensitive to cleaning protocol and the preservation state of otolith morphological features, and N content differences among taxa were consistent across deposits, pointing to a fossil-native origin for the organic matter. All three species showed an increase in otolith-bound organic matter δ15N of ~4‰ from Campanian to Maastrichtian. As to its cause, the similar change in distinct genera argues against changing trophic level, and modern field data argue against the different locations of the sedimentary deposits. Rather, the lower δ15N in the Campanian is best interpreted as an environmental signal at the regional scale or greater, and it may be a consequence of the warmer global climate. A similar decrease has been observed in foraminifera-bound δ15N during warm periods of the Cenozoic, reflecting decreased water column denitrification and thus contraction of the ocean's oxygen deficient zones (ODZs) under warm conditions. The same δ15N-climate correlation in Cretaceous otoliths raises the prospect of an ODZ-to-climate relationship that has been consistent over the last ~80 My, applying before and after the end-Cretaceous mass extinction and spanning changes in continental configuration.

The biological carbon pump in CMIP6 models: 21st century trends and uncertainties.

The biological carbon pump (BCP) stores ∼1,700 Pg C from the atmosphere in the ocean interior, but the magnitude and direction of future changes in carbon sequestration by the BCP are uncertain. We quantify global trends in export production, sinking organic carbon fluxes, and sequestered carbon in the latest Coupled Model Intercomparison Project Phase 6 (CMIP6) future projections, finding a consistent 19 to 48 Pg C increase in carbon sequestration over the 21st century for the SSP3-7.0 scenario, equivalent to 5 to 17% of the total increase of carbon in the ocean by 2100. This is in contrast to a global decrease in export production of -0.15 to -1.44 Pg C y-1. However, there is significant uncertainty in the modeled future fluxes of organic carbon to the deep ocean associated with a range of different processes resolved across models. We demonstrate that organic carbon fluxes at 1,000 m are a good predictor of long-term carbon sequestration and suggest this is an important metric of the BCP that should be prioritized in future model studies.

Nematodes alter the taxonomic and functional profiles of benthic bacterial communities: A metatranscriptomic approach.

Marine sediments cover 70% of the Earth's surface, and harbour diverse bacterial communities critical for marine biogeochemical processes, which affect climate change, biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Nematodes, the most abundant and species-rich metazoan organisms in marine sediments, in turn, affect benthic bacterial communities and bacterial-mediated ecological processes, but the underlying mechanisms by which they affect biogeochemical cycles remain poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate using a metatranscriptomic approach that nematodes alter the taxonomic and functional profiles of benthic bacterial communities. We found particularly strong stimulation of nitrogen-fixing and methane-oxidizing bacteria in the presence of nematodes, as well as increased functional activity associated with methane metabolism and degradation of various carbon compounds. This study provides empirical evidence that the presence of nematodes results in taxonomic and functional shifts in active bacterial communities, indicating that nematodes may play an important role in benthic ecosystem processes.

Phytoplankton thermal trait parameterization alters community structure and biogeochemical processes in a modeled ocean.

Phytoplankton exhibit diverse physiological responses to temperature which influence their fitness in the environment and consequently alter their community structure. Here, we explored the sensitivity of phytoplankton community structure to thermal response parameterization in a modelled marine phytoplankton community. Using published empirical data, we evaluated the maximum thermal growth rates (µmax ) and temperature coefficients (Q10 ; the rate at which growth scales with temperature) of six key Phytoplankton Functional Types (PFTs): coccolithophores, cyanobacteria, diatoms, diazotrophs, dinoflagellates, and green algae. Following three well-documented methods, PFTs were either assumed to have (1) the same µmax and the same Q10 (as in to Eppley, 1972), (2) a unique µmax but the same Q10 (similar to Kremer et al., 2017), or (3) a unique µmax and a unique Q10 (following Anderson et al., 2021). These trait values were then implemented within the Massachusetts Institute of Technology biogeochemistry and ecosystem model (called Darwin) for each PFT under a control and climate change scenario. Our results suggest that applying a µmax and Q10 universally across PFTs (as in Eppley, 1972) leads to unrealistic phytoplankton communities, which lack diatoms globally. Additionally, we find that accounting for differences in the Q10 between PFTs can significantly impact each PFT's competitive ability, especially at high latitudes, leading to altered modeled phytoplankton community structures in our control and climate change simulations. This then impacts estimates of biogeochemical processes, with, for example, estimates of export production varying by ~10% in the Southern Ocean depending on the parameterization. Our results indicate that the diversity of thermal response traits in phytoplankton not only shape community composition in the historical and future, warmer ocean, but that these traits have significant feedbacks on global biogeochemical cycles.

Glucose Enhances Salinity-Driven Sea Spray Aerosol Production in Eastern Arctic Waters.

Sea spray aerosols (SSA) greatly affect the climate system by scattering solar radiation and acting as seeds for cloud droplet formation. The ecosystems in the Arctic Ocean are rapidly changing due to global warming, and the effects these changes have on the generation of SSA, and thereby clouds and fog formation in this region, are unknown. During the ship-based Arctic Century Expedition, we examined the dependency of forced SSA production on the biogeochemical characteristics of seawater using an on-board temperature-controlled aerosol generation chamber with a plunging jet system. Our results indicate that mainly seawater salinity and organic content influence the production and size distribution of SSA. However, we observed a 2-fold higher SSA production from waters with similar salinity collected north of 81°N compared to samples collected south of this latitude. This variability was not explained by phytoplankton and bacterial abundances or Chlorophyll-a concentration but by the presence of glucose in seawater. The synergic action of sea salt (essential component) and glucose or glucose-rich saccharides (enhancer) accounts for >80% of SSA predictability throughout the cruise. Our results suggest that besides wind speed and salinity, SSA production in Arctic waters is also affected by specific organics released by the microbiota.

Anammox bacteria drive fixed nitrogen loss in hadal trench sediments.

Benthic N2 production by microbial denitrification and anammox is the largest sink for fixed nitrogen in the oceans. Most N2 production occurs on the continental shelves, where a high flux of reactive organic matter fuels the depletion of nitrate close to the sediment surface. By contrast, N2 production rates in abyssal sediments are low due to low inputs of reactive organics, and nitrogen transformations are dominated by aerobic nitrification and the release of nitrate to the bottom water. Here, we demonstrate that this trend is reversed in the deepest parts of the oceans, the hadal trenches, where focusing of reactive organic matter enhances benthic microbial activity. Thus, at ∼8-km depth in the Atacama Trench, underlying productive surface waters, nitrate is depleted within a few centimeters of the sediment surface, N2 production rates reach those reported from some continental margin sites, and fixed nitrogen loss is mainly conveyed by anammox bacteria. These bacteria are closely related to those known from shallow oxygen minimum zone waters, and comparison of activities measured in the laboratory and in situ suggest they are piezotolerant. Even the Kermadec Trench, underlying oligotrophic surface waters, exhibits substantial fixed N removal. Our results underline the role of hadal sediments as hot spots of deep-sea biological activity, revealing a fully functional benthic nitrogen cycle at high hydrostatic pressure and pointing to hadal sediments as a previously unexplored niche for anaerobic microbial ecology and diagenesis.

Isotopic Insights into Organic Composition Differences between Supermicron and Submicron Sea Spray Aerosol.

To elucidate the seawater biological and physicochemical factors driving differences in organic composition between supermicron and submicron sea spray aerosol (SSAsuper and SSAsub), carbon isotopic composition (δ13C) measurements were performed on size-segregated, nascent SSA collected during a phytoplankton bloom mesocosm experiment. The δ13C measurements indicate that SSAsuper contains a mixture of particulate and dissolved organic material in the bulk seawater. After phytoplankton growth, a greater amount of freshly produced carbon was observed in SSAsuper with the proportional contribution being modulated by bacterial activity, emphasizing the importance of the microbial loop in controlling the organic composition of SSAsuper. Conversely, SSAsub exhibited no apparent relationship with biological activity but tracked closely with surface tension measurements probing the topmost ∼0.2-1.5 µm of the sea surface microlayer. This probing depth is similar to a bubble's film thickness at the ocean surface, suggesting that SSAsub organic composition may be influenced by the presence of surfactants at the air-sea interface that are transferred into SSAsub by bubble bursting. Our findings illustrate the substantial impact of seawater dynamics on the pronounced organic compositional differences between SSAsuper and SSAsub and demonstrate that these two SSA populations should be considered separately when assessing their contribution to marine aerosols and climate.

Exploring biogeochemical and ecological redundancy in phytoplankton communities in the global ocean.

Climate-change-induced alterations of oceanic conditions will lead to the ecological niches of some marine phytoplankton species disappearing, at least regionally. How will such losses affect the ecosystem and the coupled biogeochemical cycles? Here, we couch this question in terms of ecological redundancy (will other species be able to fill the ecological roles of the extinct species) and biogeochemical redundancy (can other species replace their biogeochemical roles). Prior laboratory and field studies point to a spectrum in the degree of redundancy. We use a global three-dimensional computer model with diverse planktonic communities to explore these questions further. The model includes 35 phytoplankton types that differ in size, biogeochemical function and trophic strategy. We run two series of experiments in which single phytoplankton types are either partially or fully eliminated. The niches of the targeted types were not completely reoccupied, often with a reduction in the transfer of matter from autotrophs to heterotrophs. Primary production was often decreased, but sometimes increased due to reduction in grazing pressure. Complex trophic interactions (such as a decrease in the stocks of a predator's grazer) led to unexpected reshuffling of the community structure. Alterations in resource utilization may cause impacts beyond the regions where the type went extinct. Our results suggest a lack of redundancy, especially in the 'knock on' effects on higher trophic levels. Redundancy appeared lowest for types on the edges of trait space (e.g. smallest) or with unique competitive strategies. Though highly idealized, our modelling findings suggest that the results from laboratory or field studies often do not adequately capture the ramifications of functional redundancy. The modelled, often counterintuitive, responses-via complex food web interactions and bottom-up versus top-down controls-indicate that changes in planktonic community will be key determinants of future ocean global change ecology and biogeochemistry.

Enhanced CO2 uptake at a shallow Arctic Ocean seep field overwhelms the positive warming potential of emitted methane.

Continued warming of the Arctic Ocean in coming decades is projected to trigger the release of teragrams (1 Tg = 106 tons) of methane from thawing subsea permafrost on shallow continental shelves and dissociation of methane hydrate on upper continental slopes. On the shallow shelves (<100 m water depth), methane released from the seafloor may reach the atmosphere and potentially amplify global warming. On the other hand, biological uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) has the potential to offset the positive warming potential of emitted methane, a process that has not received detailed consideration for these settings. Continuous sea-air gas flux data collected over a shallow ebullitive methane seep field on the Svalbard margin reveal atmospheric CO2 uptake rates (-33,300 ± 7,900 µmol m-2⋅d-1) twice that of surrounding waters and ∼1,900 times greater than the diffusive sea-air methane efflux (17.3 ± 4.8 µmol m-2⋅d-1). The negative radiative forcing expected from this CO2 uptake is up to 231 times greater than the positive radiative forcing from the methane emissions. Surface water characteristics (e.g., high dissolved oxygen, high pH, and enrichment of 13C in CO2) indicate that upwelling of cold, nutrient-rich water from near the seafloor accompanies methane emissions and stimulates CO2 consumption by photosynthesizing phytoplankton. These findings challenge the widely held perception that areas characterized by shallow-water methane seeps and/or strongly elevated sea-air methane flux always increase the global atmospheric greenhouse gas burden.

Saharan dust nutrients promote Vibrio bloom formation in marine surface waters.

Vibrio is a ubiquitous genus of marine bacteria, typically comprising a small fraction of the total microbial community in surface waters, but capable of becoming a dominant taxon in response to poorly characterized factors. Iron (Fe), often restricted by limited bioavailability and low external supply, is an essential micronutrient that can limit Vibrio growth. Vibrio species have robust metabolic capabilities and an array of Fe-acquisition mechanisms, and are able to respond rapidly to nutrient influx, yet Vibrio response to environmental pulses of Fe remains uncharacterized. Here we examined the population growth of Vibrio after natural and simulated pulses of atmospherically transported Saharan dust, an important and episodic source of Fe to tropical marine waters. As a model for opportunistic bacterial heterotrophs, we demonstrated that Vibrio proliferate in response to a broad range of dust-Fe additions at rapid timescales. Within 24 h of exposure, strains of Vibrio cholerae and Vibrio alginolyticus were able to directly use Saharan dust-Fe to support rapid growth. These findings were also confirmed with in situ field studies; arrival of Saharan dust in the Caribbean and subtropical Atlantic coincided with high levels of dissolved Fe, followed by up to a 30-fold increase of culturable Vibrio over background levels within 24 h. The relative abundance of Vibrio increased from ∼1 to ∼20% of the total microbial community. This study, to our knowledge, is the first to describe Vibrio response to Saharan dust nutrients, having implications at the intersection of marine ecology, Fe biogeochemistry, and both human and environmental health.

Multiyear predictability of tropical marine productivity.

With the emergence of decadal predictability simulations, research toward forecasting variations of the climate system now covers a large range of timescales. However, assessment of the capacity to predict natural variations of relevant biogeochemical variables like carbon fluxes, pH, or marine primary productivity remains unexplored. Among these, the net primary productivity (NPP) is of particular relevance in a forecasting perspective. Indeed, in regions like the tropical Pacific (30°N-30°S), NPP exhibits natural fluctuations at interannual to decadal timescales that have large impacts on marine ecosystems and fisheries. Here, we investigate predictions of NPP variations over the last decades (i.e., from 1997 to 2011) with an Earth system model within the tropical Pacific. Results suggest a predictive skill for NPP of 3 y, which is higher than that of sea surface temperature (1 y). We attribute the higher predictability of NPP to the poleward advection of nutrient anomalies (nitrate and iron), which sustain fluctuations in phytoplankton productivity over several years. These results open previously unidentified perspectives to the development of science-based management approaches to marine resources relying on integrated physical-biogeochemical forecasting systems.

Single bacterial strain capable of significant contribution to carbon cycling in the surface ocean.

Marine dissolved organic carbon (DOC) encompasses one of the largest reservoirs of carbon on Earth. Heterotrophic bacteria are the primary biotic force regulating the fate of this material, yet the capacity of individual strains to significantly contribute to carbon cycling is unknown. Here we quantified the ability of a single Alteromonas strain [Alteromonas sp. strain Scripps Institution of Oceanography (AltSIO)] to drawdown ambient DOC in a coastal ecosystem. In three experiments, AltSIO alone consumed the entire pool of labile DOC, defined here as the quantity consumed by the submicron size fraction of ambient microbial assemblages within 5 d. These findings demonstrate that complete removal of the labile DOC pool in coastal surface seawater can be achieved by a single taxon. During long-term incubations (>1 y) testing semilabile DOC consumption, AltSIO entered dormancy but remained viable, while the diverse assemblages continued to consume carbon. Given that AltSIO is a large bacterium and thus subject to increased grazing pressure, we sought to determine the ecological relevance of this phenotype. Growth dynamics in natural seawater revealed that AltSIO rapidly outgrew the native bacteria, and despite intense grazing pressure, was never eliminated from the population. A survey in the California Current Ecosystem revealed that large bacteria (≥40 fg C⋅cell(-1)) were persistent, accounting for up to 12% of total bacterial abundance and 24% of total bacterial biomass. We conclude that large, rapidly growing bacteria have the potential to disproportionately alter the fate of carbon in the mesotrophic ocean and play an important role in ecosystem function.

Present and future global distributions of the marine Cyanobacteria Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus.

The Cyanobacteria Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus account for a substantial fraction of marine primary production. Here, we present quantitative niche models for these lineages that assess present and future global abundances and distributions. These niche models are the result of neural network, nonparametric, and parametric analyses, and they rely on >35,000 discrete observations from all major ocean regions. The models assess cell abundance based on temperature and photosynthetically active radiation, but the individual responses to these environmental variables differ for each lineage. The models estimate global biogeographic patterns and seasonal variability of cell abundance, with maxima in the warm oligotrophic gyres of the Indian and the western Pacific Oceans and minima at higher latitudes. The annual mean global abundances of Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus are 2.9 ± 0.1 × 10(27) and 7.0 ± 0.3 × 10(26) cells, respectively. Using projections of sea surface temperature as a result of increased concentration of greenhouse gases at the end of the 21st century, our niche models projected increases in cell numbers of 29% and 14% for Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus, respectively. The changes are geographically uneven but include an increase in area. Thus, our global niche models suggest that oceanic microbial communities will experience complex changes as a result of projected future climate conditions. Because of the high abundances and contributions to primary production of Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus, these changes may have large impacts on ocean ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles.

The ongoing need for rates: can physiology and omics come together to co-design the measurements needed to understand complex ocean biogeochemistry?

The necessity to understand the influence of global ocean change on biota has exposed wide-ranging gaps in our knowledge of the fundamental principles that underpin marine life. Concurrently, physiological research has stagnated, in part driven by the advent and rapid evolution of molecular biological techniques, such that they now influence all lines of enquiry in biological oceanography. This dominance has led to an implicit assumption that physiology is outmoded, and advocacy that ecological and biogeochemical models can be directly informed by omics. However, the main modeling currencies are biological rates and biogeochemical fluxes. Here, we ask: how do we translate the wealth of information on physiological potential from omics-based studies to quantifiable physiological rates and, ultimately, to biogeochemical fluxes? Based on the trajectory of the state-of-the-art in biomedical sciences, along with case-studies from ocean sciences, we conclude that it is unlikely that omics can provide such rates in the coming decade. Thus, while physiological rates will continue to be central to providing projections of global change biology, we must revisit the metrics we rely upon. We advocate for the co-design of a new generation of rate measurements that better link the benefits of omics and physiology.

A time-series of heavy metal geochemistry in sediments of Galveston Bay estuary, Texas, 2017-2019.

Galveston Bay is an anthropogenic-influenced estuary where industrial runoff, wastewater, and shipping vessel discharges enter the bay alongside natural freshwaters. Here, heavy metal concentrations in Galveston Bay surface sediment (2-year quarterly time-series) and a single sediment core are presented to explore the anthropogenic and geochemical controls on the spatiotemporal distributions, fluxes, sources, and potential toxicity of metals within this estuary. Samples were leached to distinguish authigenic sediment coatings from geogenic crystalline material. Spatial differences dominate the observed concentration variability, with higher metal concentrations in eastern vs. western bay sediments, as the eastern bay is where metals are flocculated from the dissolved phase and/or sediments are hydrodynamically trapped. Temporal variations are a secondary controlling factor, with sediment metal concentrations positively correlated with Trinity River discharge. Core data indicate stable Fe, Pb Ni, Cd and Hg levels during the 20th century but increasing Cu and Zn levels in recent years. Galveston Bay sediments are potentially toxic for As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Sb, Zn and Hg, based on federal toxicity standards. Enrichment factors and statistical analyses suggest that Ni and Cr originate from natural sources, while anthropogenic sources dominate supply of As, Cd, Hg, Ni, Pb, Sb, and Zn. This unique time-series shows that major flooding events, such as Hurricane Harvey in 2017, affect surface sediment metal distributions in Galveston Bay, but not any more than the natural geochemical controls on spatiotemporal distributions of metals in anthropogenic-influenced estuaries.

Diel dynamics of dissolved organic matter and heterotrophic prokaryotes reveal enhanced growth at the ocean's mesopelagic fish layer during daytime.

Contrary to epipelagic waters, where biogeochemical processes closely follow the light and dark periods, little is known about diel cycles in the ocean's mesopelagic realm. Here, we monitored the dynamics of dissolved organic matter (DOM) and planktonic heterotrophic prokaryotes every 2 h for one day at 0 and 550 m (a depth occupied by vertically migrating fishes during light hours) in oligotrophic waters of the central Red Sea. We additionally performed predator-free seawater incubations of samples collected from the same site both at midnight and at noon. Comparable in situ variability in microbial biomass and dissolved organic carbon concentration suggests a diel supply of fresh DOM in both layers. The presence of fishes in the mesopelagic zone during daytime likely promoted a sustained, longer growth of larger prokaryotic cells. The specific growth rates were consistently higher in the noon experiments from both depths (surface: 0.34 vs. 0.18 d-1, mesopelagic: 0.16 vs. 0.09 d-1). Heterotrophic prokaryotes in the mesopelagic layer were also more efficient at converting extant DOM into new biomass. These results suggest that the ocean's twilight zone receives a consistent diurnal supply of labile DOM from the diel vertical migration of fishes, enabling an unexpectedly active community of heterotrophic prokaryotes.

Reactive oxygen species in the world ocean and their impacts on marine ecosystems.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are omnipresent in the ocean, originating from both biological (e.g., unbalanced metabolism or stress) and non-biological processes (e.g. photooxidation of colored dissolved organic matter). ROS can directly affect the growth of marine organisms, and can also influence marine biogeochemistry, thus indirectly impacting the availability of nutrients and food sources. Microbial communities and evolution are shaped by marine ROS, and in turn microorganisms influence steady-state ROS concentrations by acting as the predominant sink for marine ROS. Through their interactions with trace metals and organic matter, ROS can enhance microbial growth, but ROS can also attack biological macromolecules, causing extensive modifications with deleterious results. Several biogeochemically important taxa are vulnerable to very low ROS concentrations within the ranges measured in situ, including the globally distributed marine cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus and ammonia-oxidizing archaea of the phylum Thaumarchaeota. Finally, climate change may increase the amount of ROS in the ocean, especially in the most productive surface layers. In this review, we explore the sources of ROS and their roles in the oceans, how the dynamics of ROS might change in the future, and how this change might impact the ecology and chemistry of the future ocean.

Leaching material from Antarctic seaweeds and penguin guano affects cloud-relevant aerosol production.

Within the Southern Ocean, the greatest warming is occurring on the Antarctic Peninsula (AP) where clear cryospheric and biological consequences are being observed. Antarctic coastal systems harbour a high diversity of marine and terrestrial ecosystems heavily influenced by Antarctic seaweeds (benthonic macroalgae) and bird colonies (mainly penguins). Primary sea spray aerosols (SSA) formed by the outburst of bubbles via the sea-surface microlayer depend on the organic composition of the sea water surface. In order to gain insight into the influence of ocean biology and biogeochemistry on atmospheric aerosol, we performed in situ laboratory aerosol bubble chamber experiments to study the effect of different leachates of biogenic material - obtained from common Antarctic seaweeds as well as penguin guano - on primary SSA. The addition of different leachate materials on a seawater sample showed a dichotomous effect depending on the leachate material added - either suppressing (up to 52%) or enhancing (22-88%) aerosol particle production. We found high ice nucleating particle number concentrations resulting from addition of guano leachate material. Given the evolution of upper marine polar coastal ecosystems in the AP, further studies on ocean-atmosphere coupling are needed in order to represent the currently poorly understood climate feedback processes.

From the Ocean to the Lab-Assessing Iron Limitation in Cyanobacteria: An Interface Paper.

Iron is an essential, yet scarce, nutrient in marine environments. Phytoplankton, and especially cyanobacteria, have developed a wide range of mechanisms to acquire iron and maintain their iron-rich photosynthetic machinery. Iron limitation studies often utilize either oceanographic methods to understand large scale processes, or laboratory-based, molecular experiments to identify underlying molecular mechanisms on a cellular level. Here, we aim to highlight the benefits of both approaches to encourage interdisciplinary understanding of the effects of iron limitation on cyanobacteria with a focus on avoiding pitfalls in the initial phases of collaboration. In particular, we discuss the use of trace metal clean methods in combination with sterile techniques, and the challenges faced when a new collaboration is set up to combine interdisciplinary techniques. Methods necessary for producing reliable data, such as High Resolution Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (HR-ICP-MS), Flow Injection Analysis Chemiluminescence (FIA-CL), and 77K fluorescence emission spectroscopy are discussed and evaluated and a technical manual, including the preparation of the artificial seawater medium Aquil, cleaning procedures, and a sampling scheme for an iron limitation experiment is included. This paper provides a reference point for researchers to implement different techniques into interdisciplinary iron studies that span cyanobacteria physiology, molecular biology, and biogeochemistry.

Tracking Improvement in Simulated Marine Biogeochemistry Between CMIP5 and CMIP6.

Purpose of Review: The changes or updates in ocean biogeochemistry component have been mapped between CMIP5 and CMIP6 model versions, and an assessment made of how far these have led to improvements in the simulated mean state of marine biogeochemical models within the current generation of Earth system models (ESMs). Recent Findings: The representation of marine biogeochemistry has progressed within the current generation of Earth system models. However, it remains difficult to identify which model updates are responsible for a given improvement. In addition, the full potential of marine biogeochemistry in terms of Earth system interactions and climate feedback remains poorly examined in the current generation of Earth system models. Summary: Increasing availability of ocean biogeochemical data, as well as an improved understanding of the underlying processes, allows advances in the marine biogeochemical components of the current generation of ESMs. The present study scrutinizes the extent to which marine biogeochemistry components of ESMs have progressed between the 5th and the 6th phases of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP).