[Main mechanisms of secondary ischemic brain damage formation in case of craniocerebral injury]. / Osnovnye mekhanizmy formirovaniya vtorichnykh ishemicheskikh povrezhdenii golovnogo mozga pri cherepno-mozgovoi travme.

OBJECTIVE: To systematize the mechanisms of formation and morphology of secondary ischemic brain damage, formed in the case of craniocerebral injury. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A literature review devoted to the study of formation mechanisms of secondary ischemic brain damage in craniocerebral injury was conducted. The secondary sequential and secondary long-term ischemic brain damage in the posttraumatic period, as well as intracranial and extracranial factors that contribute to their occurrence and progression, were considered. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Analysis of the literature has shown that primary lesions occurring at the time of head injury must be differentiated from sequential and long-term secondary ischemic changes in different brain structures.

Studying the social mind: An updated summary of findings from the Vietnam Head Injury Study.

Lesion mapping studies allow us to evaluate the potential causal contribution of specific brain areas to human cognition and complement other cognitive neuroscience methods, as several authors have recently pointed out. Here, we present an updated summary of the findings from the Vietnam Head Injury Study (VHIS) focusing on the studies conducted over the last decade, that examined the social mind and its intricate neural and cognitive underpinnings. The VHIS is a prospective, long-term follow-up study of Vietnam veterans with penetrating traumatic brain injury (pTBI) and healthy controls (HC). The scope of the work is to present the studies from the latest phases (3 and 4) of the VHIS, 70 studies since 2011, when the Raymont et al. paper was published (Raymont et al., 2011). These studies have contributed to our understanding of human social cognition, including political and religious beliefs, theory of mind, but also executive functions, intelligence, and personality. This work finally discusses the usefulness of lesion mapping as an approach to understanding the functions of the human brain from basic science and clinical perspectives.

Cranial surgery in the North Pontic region during the 3rd millennium BC.

This study examines the development of cranial surgery in the North Pontic region during the Early and Middle Bronze Age (late 4th and 3rd millennium BC according to the Eastern European chronology). 389 skulls from burials of this period were examined for evidence of surgical intervention. Twenty five such cases were identified and analysed for sex, age, temporal and spatial distribution, size and number of lesions, signs of healing, technique, motivation and complications of the surgery. The study indicates that cranial surgery was a well-developed medical practice in the North Pontic region during the period under consideration. Most of the cases are concentrated in the Dnipro steppe area, suggesting the possibility of outlining another centre of cranial surgery on the map of Europe. The predominant trepanation technique used here was scraping, although alternative methods were also practised. Treatment of traumatic injuries is considered to be one of the main reasons for cranial surgery in our sample. The percentage of individuals who underwent cranial intrusions increased significantly from 1.2% in the first half to 10.4% in the second half of the 3rd millennium BC, indicating a chronological shift in the distribution of cranial surgery. This trend is believed to be related to changes in weaponry during the Middle Bronze Age. The introduction of stone battle axes and maces as common weapons led to a significant increase in the occurrence of blunt force injuries, both depressed and penetrating. Trepanation may have been employed as an effective medical treatment for such traumas.

Estrategias para el empleo optimizado de la neuroimagenología en pacientes con traumatismo encéfalo craneano: puesta al día / Strategies for the optimized use of neuroimaging in patients with head trauma cranial: update

INTRODUCTION: Introduction of current neuroimaging technologies has been essential for the agile and effective diagnosis of cranial brain injuries. However, for various reasons there is a tendency to indiscriminate use. A review of the topic was made aimed at providing an update on the recommended strategies for the optimized use of these technologies. Material and method: A review of the topic of the last five years was made, using the Medline / Pubmed and SciELO platforms of complete articles, in English and Spanish. We also included relevant articles, published in previous years, located in previous bibliographic reviews carried out by the authors. CONCLUSIONS: Routine study with CT scan in all patients with head trauma is not cost effective, should be used in patients with Glasgow less than 15 points or in those with Glasgow of 15 points and risk factors of intracranial injury. Its use as a form of neuromonitoring is similarly useful, but on a selective basis. Magnetic Resonance Imaging is especially useful in the mediate or late periods of cranial trauma, in patients with clinical tomographic incongruences, very useful to establish prognosis in diffuse traumas and intracranial complications. Neurosonology is a useful tool for therapeutic decision.

Protective effects of Ganoderma lucidum on the changes made in the retinal damage induced by traumatic head injury / Efectos protectores de Ganoderma lucidum sobre los cambios producidos en el daño retinal inducido por lesión traumática en la cabeza

Head trauma affects the optic nerve visual function and visual acuity. As a result of head trauma occurring in the retina of the various biochemical, histological and immunohistochemical effects were investigated. The protective effect of Ganoderma lucidum was evaluated on the damage to the retina of the rats. Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to traumatic brain injury with a weight-drop device using 300 g-1 m weight-height impact. Thirty rats were divided into three groups as group 1 control, 2 group trauma, 3 group trauma+Gonoderma lucidum (20 mL/kg per day via gastric gavage) Ganoderma lucidum was administered for 7 days after trauma.All rats were decapitated 5 days after the induction of trauma, and the protective effects of Ganoderma lucidum in retina were evaluated by histological, immunohistochemical and biochemical analyses. The antioxidant effect of Ganoderma lucidum on the cellular degeneration extracellular matrix and retinal barrier in retina after head trauma was investigated.

El traumatismo craneal afecta al nervio óptico en relación a su función y la agudeza visual. Se estudiaron los diversos efectos bioquímicos, histológicos e inmunohistoquímicos en la retina producidos por una lesión y trauma a la cabeza. En esta investigación se evaluó el efecto protector de Gonaderin lucidum sobre el daño a la retina de ratas. Ratas Sprague-Dawley fueron sometidas a una lesión cerebral traumática con un dispositivo de caída de peso usando un impacto de 300 g-1 m de peso-altura. Treinta ratas se dividieron en tres grupos: grupo 1, de control; grupo 2, trauma; grupo 3, de trauma + Gonoderma lucidum (20 ml / kg día, a través de una sonda gástrica). Ganoderma lucidum se administró durante 7 días después del trauma. Todas las ratas fueron decapitadas 5 días después. La inducción del trauma y los efectos protectores de Ganoderma lucidum en la retina fueron evaluados mediante análisis histológicos, inmunohistoquímicos y bioquímicos. Se investigó el efecto antioxidante de Ganoderma lucidum sobre la degeneración celular en la matriz extracelular y la barrera retiniana en la retina después del traumatismo craneal.

Reconstrução de calota craniana com prótese customizada de PMMA após craniectomias descompressivas / Skull reconstruction with PMMA customized prostheses after decompressive craniectomies

Introdução: A craniectomia descompressiva é uma cirurgia indicada no tratamento da hipertensão intracraniana em situações graves de traumas cranioencefálicos. Esta cirurgia confere uma aparência bizarra ao paciente, como se "parte da cabeça" houvesse sido retirada. Após a regressão do edema cerebral e quando o paciente reunir boas condições clínicas, a reconstrução craniana está indicada. A reconstrução da calota craniana poderá ser realizada com osso autólogo ou com materiais aloplásticos. Este estudo objetiva apresentar a experiência do autor com reconstruções de calota craniana utilizando próteses customizadas de PMMA. Métodos: Foram selecionados 14 pacientes submetidos à craniectomia descompressiva que, após serem liberados clinicamente pela Neurocirurgia, realizaram a reconstrução da calota craniana com próteses de PMMA customizadas por prototipagem entre os anos de 2014 e 2015 e com, no mínimo, 6 meses de pós-operatório. Sinais e sintomas de síndrome do Trefinado, tomografia computadorizada e aparência estética dos pacientes foram analisadas no pré e no 6º mês pós-operatório. Resultados: Todos os pacientes apresentaram melhora sintomatológica, melhora estética e expansão cerebral após a cirurgia. Conclusão: A reconstrução da calota craniana com prótese customizada de PMMA promoveu a melhora dos sinais e sintomas e da aparência estética de todos os 14 pacientes operados. A utilização de protótipos para customizar próteses cranianas facilitou a técnica operatória e possibilitou a recuperação de um contorno craniano muito próximo da normalidade.

Introduction: Decompressive craniectomy is indicated for the treatment of intracranial hypertension in cases of serious traumatic brain injury. This surgery results in a bizarre appearance, as if "part of the head" had been. After regression of cerebral edema and when the patient is in good clinical condition, the reconstruction of the skull is indicated. Reconstruction of the skull can be performed with autologous bone or with alloplastic materials. This study sought to present the experience of the author with skull reconstructions using custom PMMA prostheses. Methods: In between 2014 and 2015, fourteen patients with previous (longer than 6 months) decompressive craniectomies were selected after Neurosurgery medical clearance and underwent skull reconstruction with customized PMMA prototyped prostheses. Signs and symptoms of syndrome of the trephined, computed tomography, and aesthetic appearance of the patients were analyzed preoperatively and at 6 months after reconstruction. Results: All patients presented with improved symptomatology, aesthetic improvement and expansion of the brain after surgery. Conclusion: Reconstruction of the skull with customized prototyped PMMA prostheses improved the signs and symptoms and the aesthetic appearance in all 14 patients of this series. The use of prototypes to customize cranial prostheses facilitates the operative technique and enables patients to develop a nearly normal cranial contour.

Pediatric minor head trauma: do cranial CT scans change the therapeutic approach?

OBJECTIVES: 1) To verify clinical signs correlated with appropriate cranial computed tomography scan indications and changes in the therapeutic approach in pediatric minor head trauma scenarios. 2) To estimate the radiation exposure of computed tomography scans with low dose protocols in the context of trauma and the additional associated risk. METHODS: Investigators reviewed the medical records of all children with minor head trauma, which was defined as a Glasgow coma scale ≥13 at the time of admission to the emergency room, who underwent computed tomography scans during the years of 2013 and 2014. A change in the therapeutic approach was defined as a neurosurgical intervention performed within 30 days, hospitalization, >12 hours of observation, or neuro-specialist evaluation. RESULTS: Of the 1006 children evaluated, 101 showed some abnormality on head computed tomography scans, including 49 who were hospitalized, 16 who remained under observation and 36 who were dismissed. No patient underwent neurosurgery. No statistically significant relationship was observed between patient age, time between trauma and admission, or signs/symptoms related to trauma and abnormal imaging results. A statistically significant relationship between abnormal image results and a fall higher than 1.0 meter was observed (p=0.044). The mean effective dose was 2.0 mSv (0.1 to 6.8 mSv), corresponding to an estimated additional cancer risk of 0.05%. CONCLUSION: A computed tomography scan after minor head injury in pediatric patients did not show clinically relevant abnormalities that could lead to neurosurgical indications. Patients who fell more than 1.0 m were more likely to have changes in imaging tests, although these changes did not require neurosurgical intervention; therefore, the use of computed tomography scans may be questioned in this group. The results support the trend of more careful indications for cranial computed tomography scans for children with minor head trauma.

Traumatic arteriovenous fistula of the superficial temporal artery / Fístula arteriovenosa traumática de artéria temporal superficial

Arteriovenous fistulae of the superficial temporal artery are rare, and their principal cause is traumas. Complications include pulsatile mass, headache, hemorrhage and deformities that compromise esthetics. Treatment can be performed using conventional surgery or endovascular methods. The authors describe a case of a 44-year-old male patient who developed a large pulsating mass, extending from the preauricular region to the right parietotemporal and frontal regions after a motorcycle accident. The treatment chosen was complete surgical removal of the pulsatile mass and ligature of the vessels feeding the fistula.

As fístulas arteriovenosas de artéria temporal superficial são raras, sendo o trauma sua etiologia principal. Suas complicações incluem massa pulsátil, cefaleia, hemorragia e deformidade estética. O tratamento pode ser realizado por cirurgia convencional ou endovascular. Os autores relatam o caso de um paciente de 44 anos que evoluiu com massa pulsátil extensa desde região pré-auricular até região parietotemporal e frontal direita após acidente motociclístico. Optou-se por remoção cirúrgica completa da massa pulsátil e ligadura dos vasos nutridores da fístula.

Secuelas en las funciones ejecutivas posteriores al traumatismo craneoencefálico en el adulto / Executive functions after traumatic brain injury in adults

Las funciones cognitivas, entre ellas las ejecutivas (FE), después de un traumatismo craneoencefálico (TCE) presentan alteraciones, que afecta la vida cotidiana de los pacientes. El propósito del estudio fue evaluar las funciones ejecutivas de pacientes adultos con TCE moderado y severo, para conocer las características neuropsicológicas distintivas de la intensidad de la lesión. Participaron 26 pacientes, 10 con TCE Moderado (edad=34.80+/-14.45; escolaridad=15.20+/-2.525 años); y 16 con TCE Severo (edad=32.17+/-9.42; escolaridad= 12.11+/-4.15 años), pareados por edad y escolaridad con un grupo control sano. Evaluados individualmente con la Batería de Funciones Ejecutivas y Frontales(Flores, Ostrosky-Solís y Lozano, 2008). Los resultados indican que los pacientes con TCE presentan principalmente problemas en el WCST, torre de Hanoi, la Iowa Gambling Task, memoria de trabajo, y habilidades semánticas. Además muestran compromiso en la velocidad del procesamiento de información, comete errores perseverativos, y dificultades en la flexibilidad mental. Los resultados sugieren mayor afección en tareas de la corteza prefrontal dorso lateral. Estos datos permitirán diseñar e implementar programas dedicados a la intervención cognitiva enfocados la mejoría de las FE.

Cognitive functions including executive functions (FE) are affected following a traumatic brain injury (TBI), diminished patient’s daily life. The purpose of the present study was measuring EF of adult moderate and severe TBI patients, and knows the neuropsychological profile related with lesion intensity. Participated 26 patients, divided in 10 with Moderate TBI (age=34.80+/-14.45; education= 15.20+/-2.525 years); and 16 with Severe TBI (age=32.17+/-9.42; education= 12.11+/-4.15 years), matched by age and level of education with a healthy control group. Participants were individually assessing with the Executive Function and Frontal Lobes Neuropsychological Battery (Flores, Ostrosky-Solís y Lozano, 2008). Results show that TBI patients mainly had problems in resolve the WCST, Hanoi Tower, Iowa Gambling Task, working memory and in process semantic information. At the same time shows decreased time in processing information, perseverations,intrusions, and less mental flexibility. Data suggest a major affection on dorso lateral prefrontal cortex tasks. This data would help to design rehabilitation programs to cognitive intervention focused on EF.

El accidente de phineas gage: su legado a la neurobiología

Phineas Gage es a no dudar, uno de los pacientes más famosos de la historia de la neurología, una cita indefectible en textos neurológicos y objeto de numerosos artículos científicos a lo largo de más de ciento cincuenta años. Este caso tan excepcional ha permitido establecer el papel principal que en el pensamiento y en la capacidad de sociabilizar tienen las regiones frontales del cerebro, especialmente la porción ventromedial, así como los circuitos y sistemas relacionados con las emociones, cuya activación conjunta con las regiones frontales, participa de forma fundamental en la planificación y toma de decisiones, y contribuye a determinar el tono afectivo de nuestras relaciones sociales. Una revisión sumaria de la historia de la medicina nos indica que es inusual que el nombre de un paciente y no el del médico que describe una situación clínica, sea mencionado para la posteridad. ¿Por qué entonces se recuerda el nombre de Gage y no el de su médico tratante y acusioso descriptor de su insania, John Martyn Harlow? Quizá porque el caso es todavía considerado como una de las mejores descripciones de un desorden "psicopático" del comportamiento relacionado con una lesión traumática del córtex prefrontal, donde la correlación anatomoclínica ha sido intentada empleando diversas concepciones y métodos a la usanza de los diversos momentos históricos. La ocasión de este relato permitirá al lector pasearse a través de la fascinante evolución y perfeccionamiento de las ideas que han llevado al conocimiento actual de la localización de las funciones neurológicas, y a atisbar el desentrañamiento de los loci de la mente y del espíritu

Phineas Gage is doubtless one of the most famous patients in the history of neurology. An infallible quote in neurology textbooks and the object of numerous scientific articles for over one hundred and fifty years. This exceptional case has allowed investigators to establish the role of the frontal cortex, specifically its ventromedial portion in the development of human thought and his/her capacity to socialize and also the close relationship of these structures with emotion-related circuits and systems which participate in the decision-making process and contributes to determine the affective tone of social interaction. A brief glance at the history of medicine shows it is exceedingly infrequent for a patient's name to transcend into posterity. Why then is the name Gage remembered instead of John Martin Harlow's, the keen describer of Gage's insanity? Perhaps because Gage's case is still considered one of the salient descriptions of a "psychopathic" disorder of behavior directly related to a traumatic lesion of the prefrontal cortex in which an anatomoclinical correlation has been attempted through diverse conceptions and methods tailored to each historical period of time. Gage's tale will take the reader for a ride along the fascinating evolutional pathways of medical thinking that have permitted the acquisition of knowledgeable localization of neurological function and allowed scientists to peep into the entangled realm of the mind and spirit

Tumefaçäo cerebral congestiva em vítimas fatais de acidentes de trânsito: frequência e associaçäo com outras lesöes cranioencefálicas / Congestive brain swelling in victims of fatal road accident: frequency and association eith other head injury lesions

Realizou-se estudo anatomopatológico macro e microscópico do encéfalo de 120 vítimas fatais de acidente de trânsito. A tumefação cerebral congestiva (TCC) ocorreu em 21 (17,5 por cento) pacientes. Consoante com a tumefação cerebral, que determina aumento volumétrico do encéfalo, foi encontrado aumento do peso médio do encéfalo. A contusão cerebral foi a lesão mais frequentemente associada com a TCC (76,2 por cento), enquanto os hematomas intracranianos foram observados em quase metade dos casos.

Explosäo lobar em vítimas fatais de acidente de trânsito / Burst lobe in victims of fatal road traffic accident: frequency and association with other head injury

Realizou-se análise morfológica, macro e microscópica, das lesões encefálicas de 120 vítimas fatais de acidente de trânsito. A explosão lobar foi observada em 12 pacientes (10,0 por cento). O lobo acometido foi o frontal em seis pacientes (50,0 por cento), o temporal em dois (16,7 por cento) e ambos em quatro (33,3 por cento). A fratura de crânio ocorreu em 8 (66,7 por cento) pacientes e a hipertensão intracraniana em metade dos casos de explosão lobar estavam associados a lesão axonal difusa, associação essa que explica a alteração grave de consciência observada à admissão dos pacientes.

Valor pronóstico del sexo y la edad en el traumatismo craneoencefálico no grave del adulto / Prognostic value of the age and gender in the mild head trauma of the adult

Introducción: Actualmente existen insuficientes evidencias relacionadas con el valor pronóstico que el sexo y la edad aportan en pacientes con traumatismo craneoencefálico. De las pocas referencias existentes, la mayoría se corresponden con estudios realizados en enfermos graves por esta causa. Con este trabajo pretendimos determinar y cuantificar la influencia de estas variables en la aparición de hematomas intracraneales después de sufrir un traumatismo de este tipo. Pacientes y Métodos: Se realizó un estudio prospectivo y observacional por medio de un análisis univariado de 557 pacientes ingresados, con el diagnóstico de traumatismo craneoencefálico no grave, en el servicio de Neurocirugía de nuestra institución, entre el 2 de mayo del 2002 y el 31 de diciembre del 2003. Se incluyeron en la investigación a todos los pacientes con este diagnóstico a los cuales se les practicó un examen tomográfico entre las 24 y las 48 horas del trauma, que por este diagnóstico se admitieron en nuestro centro. Resultados: Los pacientes con edades superiores a los 50 años tuvieron un riesgo relativo 2,15 veces mayor (IC 95 por ciento 2,43-9,49) de tener un hematoma intracraneal después de un traumatismo craneoencefálico no grave. El sexo no mostró una asociación estadísticamente significativa con la probabilidad de desarrollar un evento de este tipo. Conclusiones: Mientras la edad, en nuestro medio, pudiera utilizarse como factor pronóstico en pacientes con traumatismo craneoencefálico no grave, el sexo no parece tener una influencia importante en la aparición de hematomas intracraneales después de sufrir un traumatismo de este tipo.

Traumas craneoencefálicos en niños: aspectos terapéuticos / Cranioencephalic injuries in children: therapeutical aspects

Nuevos logros en la fisiopatología traumática en los niños hasta los 18 años de edad han modificado la concepción terapéutica de los traumatismos craneoencefalicos. Los nuevos conceptos corresponden a congestión cerebral como respuesta inicial al trauna; la clara diferencia de trauma primario y trauma secundario; la ubicación del trauma del tallo cerebral dentro de los traumas secundarios y la derivación de una terapéutica más agresiva de acuerdo a estas nuevas concepciones y al monitoreo de la hipertensión endocraneana, cuando ella está indicada, según la escala de Glasgow

Traumatismos craneoencefálicos en el Centro Médico de Caracas / Traumatic head injury in the Centro Medico of Caracas

Hemos revisado 77 historias médicas de pacientes que egresaron del Hospital Privado Centro Médico de Caracas con el diagnóstico de traumatismo craneocenfálico entre 1985 a 1989, cuyas edades estuvieron comprendidas desde horas de nacimiento hasta 80 años. El mécanismo patogénico en orden de frecuencia fue la precipitación en 30 casos (38.9%), las caidas en 21 casos (27.3%) y los accidentes automovilísticos en 9 casos (11.7%). En 58 casos (75.32%) se presentaron manifestaciones clínicas. A 33 casos (42.85%) se les practicó evaluación neurológica, el estado de coma según la escala de Glasgow mostró alteraciones en 17 casos (21.21) de los pacientes. Las manifestaciones clínicas observadas con mayor frecuencia incluyendo heridas de cuero cabelludo, hematoma, edema de papila y otorragia. A 55 (71.42%) de los pacientes se les practicó radiografía de cráneo y tomografía axial computarizada a 40 (51.94%) de los casos. A 33 (42.85%) de los pacientes se les practicó ambos estudios

Lesiones cardiacas asociadas a traumatismo craneotorácico / Cardiac lesions associated to craniothoracic trauma

Las lesiones cardiacas por traumatismo son poco frecuentes y se presentan con mayor frecuencia cuando éste es torácico-abdominal. En el Hospital General de Coyoacán Xoco del Departamento del Distrito Federal, se estudiaron 100 necropsias médico-legales, con características de traumatismos craneotorácicos. Se observaron 11 casos con lesiones cardiacas francas sin aparentes lesiones torácicas. Las lesiones cardiacas asociadas a traumatismo craneotorácico son poco frecuentes en las necropsias. Se obtuvieron datos generales de la averiguación previa de los casos estudiados: tipo de traumatismo, edad, sexo, tiempo de evoluación en los casos de internamiento y alcoholismo, entre otros. Se correlacionaron los hallazgos macroscópicos con el daño cardiaco observado. Se registraron ocho contusiones pericárdicas y tres endocárdicas, ocho endocarditis no bacterianas, cinco trombosis intramurales de la aurícula derecha y tres casos de trombosis de la coronaria derechas, de los cuales uno presentaba trombosis multiorgánica. Se discute el mecanismo de la lesión cerebral con la asociación a lesiones cardiacas sin daño torácico directo, con diferentes factores que pudieran participar en el mecanismo del daño

Traumatismo craneo-encefálico en el servicio de emergencia del Hospital Abel Gilbert Ponton de Guayaquil

El presente es un estudio retrospectivo realizado mediante la revisión de casos que ingresaron al servicio de emergencia del Hospital Abel Gilbert Pontón, presentando algún tipo de traumatismo cráneo encefálico, durante los años comprendidos entre 1990 y 1995, un total de 435 pacientes; 276 (63.45 por ciento) correspondió al sexo femenino; 199 (36.55 por ciento)al sexo masculino; en relación con la edad, el grupo que mayor porcentaje de pacientes de TCE presentó fue el comprendido entre 0 y 10 años con 285 (21.15 por ciento). Entre las causas, los accidentes de tránsito originaron el 50 por ciento de los casos, seguidos de caídas y golpes fortuitos con el 32.8 por ciento, siendo el principal factor presdisponente el alcohol con el 10.2 por ciento. El dato clínico más frecuente fue el déficit de conciencia con el 93 por ciento, seguido de las cefaleas con el 6 por ciento los hematomas subdurales unilaterales tuvieron un 4.3 por ciento y como secuelas las neurósis con el 5.59 por ciento. El área donde mayor porcentaje se atendieron pacientes fue en cirugía con un porcentaje de 54.48 por ciento, luego fue el área de pediatría con 29.20 por ciento. El 1.15 por ciento de los pacientes fallecieron...