The RSC chromatin remodelling ATPase translocates DNA with high force and small step size.

ATP-dependent chromatin remodelling complexes use the energy of ATP hydrolysis to reposition and reconfigure nucleosomes. Despite their diverse functions, all remodellers share highly conserved ATPase domains, many shown to translocate DNA. Understanding remodelling requires biophysical knowledge of the DNA translocation process: how the ATPase moves DNA and generates force, and how translocation and force generation are coupled on nucleosomes. Here, we characterize the real-time activity of a minimal RSC translocase 'motor' on bare DNA, using high-resolution optical tweezers and a 'tethered' translocase system. We observe on dsDNA a processivity of ∼35 bp, a speed of ∼25 bp/s, and a step size of 2.0 (±0.4, s.e.m.) bp. Surprisingly, the motor is capable of moving against high force, up to 30 pN, making it one of the most force-resistant motors known. We also provide evidence for DNA 'buckling' at initiation. These observations reveal the ATPase as a powerful DNA translocating motor capable of disrupting DNA-histone interactions by mechanical force.

Kinetic mechanism of initiation by RepD as a part of asymmetric, rolling circle plasmid unwinding.

Some bacterial plasmids carry antibiotic resistance genes and replicate by an asymmetric, rolling circle mechanism, in which replication of the two strands is not concurrent. Initiation of this replication occurs via an initiator protein that nicks one DNA strand at the double-stranded origin of replication. In this work, RepD protein from the staphylococcal plasmid pC221 carries this function and allows PcrA helicase to bind and begin unwinding the plasmid DNA. This work uses whole plasmid constructs as well as oligonucleotide-based mimics of parts of the origin to examine the initiation reaction. It investigates the phenomenon that nicking, although required to open a single-stranded region at the origin and so allow PcrA to bind, is not required for another function of RepD, namely to increase the processivity of PcrA, allowing it to unwind plasmid lengths of DNA. A kinetic mechanism of RepD initiation is presented, showing rapid binding of the origin DNA. The rate of nicking varies with the structure of the DNA but can occur with a rate constant of >25 s(-1) at 30 °C. The equilibrium constant of the nicking reaction, which involves a transesterification to form a phosphotyrosine bond within the RepD active site, is close to unity.

Influence of physicochemical properties on pharmacokinetics of non-viral vectors for gene delivery.

The influence of physicochemical properties on the in vivo pharmacokinetics of gene delivery vectors after systemic administration is reviewed based on our studies. We have been studying the development of DNA delivery systems, such as plasmid DNA complexed with cationic polymers (polyplexes) and cationic liposomes (lipoplexes). Even if target-recognizable ligand is incorporated into the system, the overall physicochemical properties, notably size and charge, are predominant factors influencing in vivo disposition characteristics of the vector. Based on this consideration, liver cell-specific carrier systems via receptor-mediated endocytosis were successfully developed by optimizing physicochemical characteristics. In conclusion, rational design of gene delivery vectors requires an understanding of their pharmacokinetics in relation to the physicochemical properties. Optimization of the physicochemical properties is important for successful in vivo gene delivery by non-viral vectors.

Adsorption of pDNA on microparticulate charged surface.

Plasmid DNA purification strategies are often based on chromatographic processes, which often suffer from low dynamic binding capacities and poor productivity. The limitations of conventional chromatography media for adsorption of pDNA led us to the investigation of irregular polymeric microparticles with quaternary amine functionality. They have an average particle size of 8-10 microm. The adsorption properties of microparticles are comparable to monolithic supports, i.e. the adsorption process is accomplished within 15 min and the binding capacity is in the range of 15 mg/mL. Desorption with NaCl renders nearly theoretical yield. Due to the small particle size the mode of operation is rather batch adsorption than column chromatography. The phase separation is facilitated by formation of reversible flocs of pDNA and microparticles. The implementation of microparticles in a lab-scale capture step out of processed E. coli lysates demonstrated their potential as a high speed and high capacity material for pDNA purification.

Efficient transformation of mammalian cells using DNA interpolyelectrolyte complexes with carbon chain polycations.

A new method for mammalian cell transformation is proposed which is based on incorporation of plasmids into interpolyelectrolyte complexes (IPECs) with carbon chain polycations. The method is illustrated by examples of pRSV CAT and p beta-Gal plasmid IPECs with poly(N-ethyl-4-vinylpyridinium bromide) (C2PVP) and poly(N-ethyl-4-vinylpyridinium)-poly(N-cetyl-4-vinylpyridinium+ ++) bromides random copolymer (C16PVP). These IPECs are produced spontaneously due to formation of a cooperative system of interchain electrostatic bonds after mixing DNA and polycation solutions. The interaction of IPEC with normal mouse fibroblasts NIH 3T3, human T-lymphoma "Jurkat", and Mardin Darby canine kidney cells has been studied. The data obtained has revealed that plasmid incorporation into IPECs significantly enhances both DNA adsorption on the plasma membrane and DNA uptake into a cell. The in vitro transformation of NIH 3T3 cells was monitored by a standard cloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) assay (pRSV CAT plasmid) and by detection of beta-galactosidase (beta-Gal) expression using 4-methylumbeliferril beta-D-galactopyranoside as a substrate (p beta-Gal plasmid). In both cases it has been proved that IPEC-incorporated plasmids possess an ability for efficient cell transformation. The transforming activity of IPECs depends on their composition and polycation chemical structure. Under optimal conditions the efficiency of cell transformation with IPECs is several fold higher than that observed during standard calcium phosphate precipitation. The mechanism of the phenomenon observed is discussed.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Identification of methylated CpG motifs as inhibitors of the immune stimulatory CpG motifs.

The unmethylated CpG motifs within E. coli DNA (EC) cause immune stimulation. In contrast, mammalian DNA such as calf thymus (CT) DNA had been thought to be immunologically inert. In this article, we demonstrate that CT DNA unexpectedly specifically inhibits the immune activation by EC but not that by endotoxin. This inhibitory effect was mediated in the signaling pathway activated by EC since CT DNA markedly inhibited the CpG-induced nuclear translocation of the transcription factors, NF-kappaB and AP-1. In addition, CT DNA significantly inhibited the synergistic immune activation by EC and endotoxin. The mechanism of the inhibition by CT DNA probably did not involve the inhibition of the cellular uptake of EC. Using a CpG-depleted plasmid, we demonstrated that CpG methylation played an important role in the inhibition by CT DNA. Compared with unmethylated plasmid DNA, CpG-methylated DNA inhibited the immune activation by EC to the same extent as did CT DNA. Importantly, the inhibitory effect of CT DNA was also observed in vivo. Our results suggest that methylated DNA may be applied to alleviate the unwanted immune stimulation and inflammation in systemic inflammatory response syndrome and in gene therapy with plasmid DNA.

Toll-like receptor 9 signaling mediates the anti-inflammatory effects of probiotics in murine experimental colitis.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: We tested whether the attenuation of experimental colitis by live probiotic bacteria is due to their immunostimulatory DNA, whether toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling is required, and whether nonviable probiotics are effective. METHODS: Methylated and unmethylated genomic DNA isolated from probiotics (VSL-3), DNAse-treated probiotics and Escherichia coli (DH5 alpha) genomic DNA were administered intragastrically (i.g.) or subcutaneously (s.c.) to mice prior to the induction of colitis. Viable or gamma-irradiated probiotics were administered i.g. to wild-type mice and mice deficient in different TLR or in the adaptor protein MyD88, 10 days prior to administration of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) to their drinking water and for 7 days thereafter. RESULTS: Intragastric and s.c. administration of probiotic and E. coli DNA ameliorated the severity of DSS-induced colitis, whereas methylated probiotic DNA, calf thymus DNA, and DNase-treated probiotics had no effect. The colitis severity was attenuated to the same extent by i.g. delivery of nonviable gamma-irradiated or viable probiotics. Mice deficient in MyD88 did not respond to gamma-irradiated probiotics. The severity of DSS-induced colitis in TLR2 and TLR4 deficient mice was significantly decreased by i.g. administration of gamma-irradiated probiotics, whereas, in TLR9-deficient mice, gamma-irradiated probiotics had no effect. CONCLUSIONS: The protective effects of probiotics are mediated by their own DNA rather than by their metabolites or ability to colonize the colon. TLR9 signaling is essential in mediating the anti-inflammatory effect of probiotics, and live microorganisms are not required to attenuate experimental colitis because nonviable probiotics are equally effective.