Addressing the Binding Mechanism of the Meprin and TRAF-C Homology Domain of the Speckle-Type POZ Protein Using Protein Engineering.

Protein-protein interactions play crucial roles in a wide range of biological processes, including metabolic pathways, cell cycle progression, signal transduction, and the proteasomal system. For PPIs to fulfill their biological functions, they require the specific recognition of a multitude of interacting partners. In many cases, however, protein-protein interaction domains are capable of binding different partners in the intracellular environment, but they require precise regulation of the binding events in order to exert their function properly and avoid misregulation of important molecular pathways. In this work, we focused on the MATH domain of the E3 Ligase adaptor protein SPOP in order to decipher the molecular features underlying its interaction with two different peptides that mimic its physiological partners: Puc and MacroH2A. By employing stopped-flow kinetic binding experiments, together with extensive site-directed mutagenesis, we addressed the roles of specific residues, some of which, although far from the binding site, govern these transient interactions. Our findings are compatible with a scenario in which the binding of the MATH domain with its substrate is characterized by a fine energetic network that regulates its interactions with different ligands. Results are briefly discussed in the context of previously existing work regarding the MATH domain.

Evolution and Expression of the Meprin and TRAF Homology Domain-Containing Gene Family in Solanaceae.

Meprin and TRAF homology (MATH)-domain-containing proteins are pivotal in modulating plant development and environmental stress responses. To date, members of the MATH gene family have been identified only in a few plant species, including Arabidopsis thaliana, Brassica rapa, maize, and rice, and the functions of this gene family in other economically important crops, especially the Solanaceae family, remain unclear. The present study identified and analyzed 58 MATH genes from three Solanaceae species, including tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), potato (Solanum tuberosum), and pepper (Capsicum annuum). Phylogenetic analysis and domain organization classified these MATH genes into four groups, consistent with those based on motif organization and gene structure. Synteny analysis found that segmental and tandem duplication might have contributed to MATH gene expansion in the tomato and the potato, respectively. Collinearity analysis revealed high conservation among Solanaceae MATH genes. Further cis-regulatory element prediction and gene expression analysis showed that Solanaceae MATH genes play essential roles during development and stress response. These findings provide a theoretical basis for other functional studies on Solanaceae MATH genes.

Inhibition of Meprins Reduces Pulmonary Edema in LPS-Induced Acute Lung Damage.

Pulmonary edema is the major factor of tissue hypoxia in acute lung injury. Disruption of cell-cell contacts and lung interstitium increases permeability of the vascular endothelium and alveolar epithelium, which leads to the development of pulmonary edema. Meprin metalloproteases cleave extracellular matrix proteins, thus aggravating pulmonary edema. Meprin inhibitor actinonin was administered to rats with LPS-induced acute lung injury. Damaged lungs looked spotted and had multiple hemorrhage focuses, protein concentration in lavage fluid was increased, and lung weight coefficient was high. Administration of meprin inhibitor actinonin considerably reduced protein content in the bronchoalvelolar lavage and lung coefficient; only solitary lung hemorrhages were seen after this treatment. Thus, inhibition of meprins potentially alleviates LPS-induced disorders in the lung tissue permeability and reduces pulmonary edema.

Proteomic identification of protease cleavage sites: cell-biological and biomedical applications.

Proteolysis shapes proteomes by protein degradation or restricted proteolysis, which generates stable cleavage products. Proteolytic (in-)activation of enzymes and cytokines is an essential aspect of the functional proteome status. Proteome-wide identification and quantification of proteolytic processing is accessible by complementary techniques for the focused analysis of protein termini. These innovative strategies are now widely applied and have transformed protease research. Pioneering studies portrayed apoptotic and caspase-dependent cleavage events. Protease-centric investigations focused predominantly on matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), granzymes and aspartyl and cysteine cathepsins. The first in vivo degradomic studies were performed with mice lacking either cysteine cathepsins or matrix metalloproteinases. Process-centric degradomic analyses investigated infectious processes and mitochondrial import. Peptidomic analyses yielded disease biomarkers representing cleavage fragments from bodily fluids. The diversity of degradomic endeavors illustrates the importance of portraying proteolytic processing in health and disease. The present review provides an overview of the current status of degradomic studies.

Proteomic analyses reveal an acidic prime side specificity for the astacin metalloprotease family reflected by physiological substrates.

Astacins are secreted and membrane-bound metalloproteases with clear associations to many important pathological and physiological processes. Yet with only a few substrates described their biological roles are enigmatic. Moreover, the lack of knowledge of astacin cleavage site specificities hampers assay and drug development. Using PICS (proteomic identification of protease cleavage site specificity) and TAILS (terminal amine isotopic labeling of substrates) degradomics approaches >3000 cleavage sites were proteomically identified for five different astacins. Such broad coverage enables family-wide determination of specificities N- and C-terminal to the scissile peptide bond. Remarkably, meprin α, meprin ß, and LAST_MAM proteases exhibit a strong preference for aspartate in the peptide (P)1' position because of a conserved positively charged residue in the active cleft subsite (S)1'. This unparalleled specificity has not been found for other families of extracellular proteases. Interestingly, cleavage specificity is also strongly influenced by proline in P2' or P3' leading to a rare example of subsite cooperativity. This specificity characterizes the astacins as unique contributors to extracellular proteolysis that is corroborated by known cleavage sites in procollagen I+III, VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor)-A, IL (interleukin)-1ß, and pro-kallikrein 7. Indeed, cleavage sites in VEGF-A and pro-kallikrein 7 identified by terminal amine isotopic labeling of substrates matched those reported by Edman degradation. Moreover, the novel substrate FGF-19 was validated biochemically and shown to exhibit altered biological activity after meprin processing.

Metalloprotease meprin beta generates nontoxic N-terminal amyloid precursor protein fragments in vivo.

Identification of physiologically relevant substrates is still the most challenging part in protease research for understanding the biological activity of these enzymes. The zinc-dependent metalloprotease meprin ß is known to be expressed in many tissues with functions in health and disease. Here, we demonstrate unique interactions between meprin ß and the amyloid precursor protein (APP). Although APP is intensively studied as a ubiquitously expressed cell surface protein, which is involved in Alzheimer disease, its precise physiological role and relevance remain elusive. Based on a novel proteomics technique termed terminal amine isotopic labeling of substrates (TAILS), APP was identified as a substrate for meprin ß. Processing of APP by meprin ß was subsequently validated using in vitro and in vivo approaches. N-terminal APP fragments of about 11 and 20 kDa were found in human and mouse brain lysates but not in meprin ß(-/-) mouse brain lysates. Although these APP fragments were in the range of those responsible for caspase-induced neurodegeneration, we did not detect cytotoxicity to primary neurons treated by these fragments. Our data demonstrate that meprin ß is a physiologically relevant enzyme in APP processing.

RTM3, which controls long-distance movement of potyviruses, is a member of a new plant gene family encoding a meprin and TRAF homology domain-containing protein.

Restriction of long-distance movement of several potyviruses in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) is controlled by at least three dominant restricted TEV movement (RTM) genes, named RTM1, RTM2, and RTM3. RTM1 encodes a protein belonging to the jacalin family, and RTM2 encodes a protein that has similarities to small heat shock proteins. In this article, we describe the positional cloning of RTM3, which encodes a protein belonging to an undescribed protein family of 29 members that has a meprin and TRAF homology (MATH) domain in its amino-terminal region and a coiled-coil domain at its carboxy-terminal end. Involvement in the RTM resistance system is the first biological function experimentally identified for a member of this new gene family in plants. Our analyses showed that the coiled-coil domain is not only highly conserved between RTM3-homologous MATH-containing proteins but also in proteins lacking a MATH domain. The cluster organization of the RTM3 homologs in the Arabidopsis genome suggests the role of duplication events in shaping the evolutionary history of this gene family, including the possibility of deletion or duplication of one or the other domain. Protein-protein interaction experiments revealed RTM3 self-interaction as well as an RTM1-RTM3 interaction. However, no interaction has been detected involving RTM2 or the potyviral coat protein previously shown to be the determinant necessary to overcome the RTM resistance. Taken together, these observations strongly suggest the RTM proteins might form a multiprotein complex in the resistance mechanism to block the long-distance movement of potyviruses.

Thiorphan, tiopronin, and related analogs as substrates and inhibitors of peptidylglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase (PAM).

Peptidyglycine alpha-amidating monooxygenase is a copper- and zinc-dependent, bifunctional enzyme that catalyzes the cleavage of glycine-extended peptides or N-acylglycines to the corresponding amides and glyoxylate. This reaction is a key step in the biosynthesis of bioactive alpha-amidated peptides and, perhaps, the primary fatty acids amides also. Two clinically useful N-acylglycines are thiorphan and tiopronin, each with a thiol moiety attached to the acyl group. We report here that thiorphan and tiopronin are substrates for PAM, exhibiting relatively low K(M,app) and V(MAX,app) values. The low V(MAX,app) values result, most likely, from a decrease in active PAM.2Cu(II) as the enzyme competes ineffectively with thiorphan and tiopronin for free copper.

MDGA1, an IgSF molecule containing a MAM domain, heterophilically associates with axon- and muscle-associated binding partners through distinct structural domains.

Molecules belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily (IgSF) are reported to be involved in intercellular communication in the developing nervous system. We have identified a novel GPI-anchored IgSF molecule containing a MAM (meprin, A5 protein, PTPmu) domain, named MDGA1, by screening for genes that are expressed by subpopulations of cells in the embryonic chick spinal cord. MDGA1 is selectively expressed by brachial LMCm motor neurons, some populations of DRG neurons, and interneurons. We found that MDGA1 interacts heterophilically with axon-rich regions, mainly through its MAM domain. Interestingly, MDGA1 also interacts with differentiating muscle through its N-terminal region, which contains Ig domains. These results suggest that MDGA1 functions in MDGA1-expressing nerves en route to and at their target site.

Metzincins, including matrix metalloproteinases and meprin, in kidney transplantation.

Chronic allograft nephropathy, including chronic rejection, remains one of the major causes of renal allograft failure. Amongst other mediators, metzincins, such as matrix metalloproteinases (MMP), direct extracellular matrix metabolism and cell proliferation. Thus, we hypothesized, that these proteolytic enzymes are differentially regulated in chronic renal transplant rejection in rats and in human renal allograft nephropathy. Our studies demonstrated on the experimental level and in humans an overall up-regulation of MMP, tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMP) and related enzymes as a result of rejection processes. Thus, metzincins may represent novel markers and therapeutic targets with respect to renal allograft rejection.

The new MATH: homology suggests shared binding surfaces in meprin tetramers and TRAF trimers.

Although apparently functionally unrelated, intracellular TRAFs and extracellular meprins share a region with conserved meprin and traf homology, MATH(1). Both TRAFs and meprins require subunit assembly for function. By structural analysis of the sequences, we provide an explanation of how meprins, which form tetramers, and TRAF molecules, which form trimers, can share homology. Our analysis suggests it is highly likely that the same oligomerization surface is used. The analysis has implications for the widely distributed group of proteins containing MATH domains.

Cloning of the PABA peptide hydrolase alpha subunit (PPH alpha) from human small intestine and its expression in COS-1 cells.

PABA peptide hydrolase (PPH) from human enterocytes is comprised of two subunits, alpha and beta. PPH alpha is over 70% identical to meprin, a protease isolated from mouse and rat kidney. The enzyme shows a modular organization in that it contains an astacin protease domain, an adhesive domain, an EGF-like domain, an a putative C-terminal membrane spanning domain. Expression of a chimeric meprin-PPH alpha cDNA in COS-1 cells led to the synthesis of immature, transport-incompetent homodimers. In addition, complex glycosylated forms were detected in the culture medium, suggesting that the enzyme is secreted after proteolytic removal of the membrane anchor.

The negative charge of Glu-127 in protein kinase A and its biorecognition.

A set of mutants of protein kinase A (PKA) in which Gln-127 was replaced by Gln, Asp, Asn, and Arg was prepared. Their Km and Vmax values show that the negative charge of Glu-127 (not merely its hydrogen bonding capacity) is indispensable for the kinase activity, since Glu-127/Gln is inactive, in spite of the fact that it can form hydrogen bonds and is very similar in bulkiness and conformation to wt-PKA. Glu-127 is involved in the biorecognition of PKA, interacting ionically with the positively charged guanido group of Arg P-3 (a major recognition element in the consensus sequence of PKA). In support of this conclusion, it is shown that a regression of the Glu-127 carboxylate by 1.54 A (as in Glu-127/Asp) results in an active kinase with a similar thermal stability and susceptibility to conformation-dependent proteolysis, a similar Vmax, an identical Km for ATP, but a > 20-fold higher Km for kemptide. The two inactive mutants of PKA, Glu-127/Gln and Glu-127/Asn, are potentially useful for studying protein-protein interactions of PKA, e.g. for monitoring enzymatically the displacement of active PKA from its complexes.

Meprin proteolytic complexes at the cell surface and in extracellular spaces.

Meprins are metalloproteinases of the astacin family and metzincin superfamily that are composed of evolutionarily related alpha and beta subunits, which exist as homo- and hetero-oligomeric complexes. These complexes are abundant at the brush border membranes of kidney proximal tubule cells and epithelial cells of the intestine, and are also expressed in certain leucocytes and cancer cells. Meprins cleave bioactive peptides such as gastrin, cholecystokinin and parathyroid hormone, cytokines such as osteopontin and monocyte chemotactic peptide-1, as well as proteins such as gelatin, collagen IV, fibronectin and casein. Database predictions and initial data indicate that meprins are also capable of shedding proteins, including itself, from the cell surface. Membrane-bound meprin subunits are composed of dimeric meprin beta subunits or tetrameric hetero-oligomeric alpha beta complexes of approx. 200-400 kDa, and can be activated at the cell surface; secreted forms of homo-oligomeric meprin alpha are zymogens that form high-molecular-mass complexes of 1-6 MDa. These are among the largest extracellular proteases identified thus far. The latent (self-associating) homo-oligomeric complexes can move through extracellular spaces in a non-destructive manner, and deliver a concentrated form of the metalloproteinase to sites that have activating proteases, such as sites of inflammation, infection or cancerous growth. Meprins provide examples of novel ways of concentrating proteolytic activity at the cell surface and in the extracellular milieu, which may be critical to proteolytic function.

Electroacupuncture and morphine analgesia potentiated by bestatin and thiorphan administered to the nucleus accumbens of the rabbit.

The endogenous opioid peptide enkephalin (EK) is known to be degraded mainly by two enzymes, the dipeptidyl carboxypeptidase 'enkephalinase' and aminopeptidase. Microinjection of the enkephalinase inhibitor thiorphan or the aminopeptidase inhibitor bestatin into the nucleus accumbens of the rabbit produced a dose-dependent analgesic effect. This analgesic effect was totally reversed by the narcotic antagonist naloxone or by antibodies against [Met5]enkephalin (MEK) administered to the same site. Antibodies against [Leu5]enkephalin were not effective. Moreover, microinjection of thiorphan or bestatin into the nucleus accumbens resulted in a marked potentiation of the aftereffect of electroacupuncture (EA) produced analgesia, as well as the analgesia induced by a small dose of morphine. It is concluded that the analgesic effect elicited by EA and morphine is mediated, at least in part, by MEK-like immunoreactive substance(s) in the nucleus accumbens.

Enantiomers of [R,S]-thiorphan: dissociation of analgesia from enkephalinase A inhibition.

The [R] and [S] enantiomers of the enkephalinase A inhibitor [R,S]-thiorphan have been prepared by asymmetric synthesis. The [S] isomer is principally responsible for the angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitory activity of [R,S]-thiorphan, whereas there were only small differences in the ability of the [R] and [S] isomers to inhibit enkephalinase both in vivo and in vitro. In contrast, the in vivo analgesic activity of [R,S]-thiorphan resided principally in the [R] isomer. These data indicate a surprising dissociation of enkephalinase inhibition from analgesic activity. The fact that the two enantiomers of [R,S]-thiorphan were effective inhibitors of enkephalinase, yet the [R] isomer had substantially greater analgesic activity, indicates that factors other than enkephalinase inhibition may be important for [R, S]-thiorphan's analgesic properties.

Liquid chromatography analysis of N-(2-mercaptopropionyl)-glycine in biological samples by ThioGlo 3 derivatization.

N-(2-Mercaptopropionyl)-glycine (MPG) is a synthetic aminothiol antioxidant that is used in the treatment of cystinuria, rheumatoid arthritis, liver and skin disorders. Recent studies have shown that MPG can function as a chelating, cardioprotecting and a radioprotecting agent. Several other studies have shown that it may also act as a free radical scavenger because of its thiol group. Thiol-containing compounds have been detected in biological samples by various analytical methods such as spectrophotometric and colorimetric methods. However, these methods require several milliliters of a sample, time-consuming procedures and complicated derivatization steps, as well as having high detection limits. The present study describes a rapid, sensitive and relatively simple method for detecting MPG in biological tissues by using reverse-phase HPLC. With ThioGlo 3 [3H-Naphto[2,1-b] pyran, 9-acetoxy-2-(4-(2,5-dihydro-2,5-dioxo-1H-pyrrol-1-yl) phenyl-3-oxo-)] as the reagent, highly fluorescent derivatives of thiols can be obtained that are suitable for HPLC. MPG is derivatized with ThioGlo 3 and is then detected flourimetrically by reverse phase HPLC using a C18 column as the stationary phase. Acetonitrile: Water (75:25) with acetic acid and phosphoric acid (1 mL/L) is used as the mobile phase (excitation wavelength, 365 nm; emission wavelength, 445 nm). The calibration curve for MPG is linear over a range of 10-2500 nM (r=0.999) and the coefficients of the variation of within-run and between-run precision were found to be 0.3 and 2.1%, respectively. The detection limit was 5.07 nM per 20 microL injection volume. Quantitative relative recovery of MPG in the biological samples (plasma, lung, liver, kidney and brain) ranged from 90+/-5.3 to 106.7+/-9.3 %. Based on these results, we have concluded that this method is suitable for determining MPG in biological samples.

Localization of technetium 99m-ethylenediamine-N,N'-bis(alpha-2-hydroxy-5-bromophenyl)acetic acid and technetium 99m-N-(2-mercapto-1-oxopropyl)glycine in hepatobiliary system.

Two radiopharmaceuticals, technetium 99m-N-(2-mercapto-1-oxopropyl)glycine (99mTc-I) and technetium 99m-ethylenediamine-N,N'-bis(alpha-2-hydroxy-5-bromophenyl)acetic acid (99MTc-II), were prepared and evaluated in dogs, rabbits, and rats. Both agents gave good scintigraphic images of the liver and gallbladder in dogs. The cumulative amount of 99mTc-I and 99mTc-II excreted in the bile of dogs and the physiological disposition data in rats revealed slight, inconclusive differences in their distributions. However, the scintigraphic images and physiological disposition data in rabbits revealed gross differences in the distribution pattern of the two agents. The observed similarities in the biliary excretion of both agents in dogs and rats were attributed to the fact that these species are relatively good biliary excretors, and both agents therefore were excreted extensively. However, rabbits, which are poor biliary excretors relative to dogs and rats, excreted 99mTc-II more extensively than 99mTc-I because of the favorable molecular characteristics of 99mTc-II.

Mapping orphan proteases by proteomics: meprin metalloproteases deciphered as potential therapeutic targets.

The protease web is a synonym for highly regulated molecular networks comprising enzymes, substrates, inhibitors, and other regulatory proteins. Latest high-throughput methods provided huge data sets, revealing an amazing complexity of proteolytic systems important for health and disease. Based on our previous studies, we discuss major problems and questions that have to be solved to gain precise insight into the regulation of the protease web and its impact on pathophysiological conditions. The goal is a combination of different proteomic approaches that help to investigate specific protease function at a glance. Exemplarily, the characterization of the metalloproteases meprin α and meprin ß by proteomic identification of cleavage sites and terminal amine isotopic labeling of substrates demonstrates the power of MS-based techniques. Meprins are rather orphan proteases and could not be assigned to precise biological functions until recently. Proteomics helped to identify meprin α and meprin ß being important for collagen assembly and deposition in skin, which makes them potential therapeutic targets in fibrotic conditions. Additionally, identification of the cleavage site specificity provides the basis for the development of activity-based probes and small compound inhibitors, important for the regulation of meprin activity and subsequent treatment of associated diseases.

Meprins process matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9)/gelatinase B and enhance the activation kinetics by MMP-3.

Meprin α and ß, members of the astacin family of zinc metalloproteinases, are unique plasma membrane and secreted proteases known to cleave a wide range of biological substrates involved in inflammation, cancer and fibrosis. In this study, we identified proMMP-9 as a novel substrate and show that aminoterminal meprin-mediated clipping improves the activation kinetics of proMMP-9 by MMP-3, an efficient activator of proMMP-9. Interestingly, the NH(2)-terminus LVLFPGDL, generated by incubation with meprin α, is identical to the form produced in conditioned media from human neutrophils and monocytes. Hence, this meprin-mediated processing and enhancement of MMP-9 activation kinetics may have biological relevance in the context of in vivo inflammatory processes.