Addressing the double-burden of diabetes and tuberculosis: lessons from Kyrgyzstan.

BACKGROUND: The incidence of diabetes and tuberculosis co-morbidity is rising, yet little work has been done to understand potential implications for health systems, healthcare providers and individuals. Kyrgyzstan is a priority country for tuberculosis control and has a 5% prevalence of diabetes in adults, with many health system challenges for both conditions. METHODS: Patient exit interviews collected data on demographic and socio-economic characteristics, health spending and care seeking for people with diabetes, tuberculosis and both diabetes and tuberculosis. Qualitative data were collected through semi-structured interviews with healthcare workers involved in diabetes and tuberculosis care, to understand delivery of care and how providers view effectiveness of care. RESULTS: The experience of co-affected individuals within the health system is different than those just with tuberculosis or diabetes. Co-affected patients do not receive more care and also have different care for their tuberculosis than people with only tuberculosis. Very high levels of catastrophic spending are found among all groups despite these two conditions being included in the Kyrgyz state benefit package especially for medicines. CONCLUSIONS: This study highlights that different patterns of service provision by disease group are found. Although Kyrgyzstan has often been cited as an example in terms of health reforms and developing Primary Health Care, this study highlights the challenge of managing conditions that are viewed as "too complicated" for non-specialists and the impact this has on costs and management of individuals.

Coping with the economic burden of Diabetes, TB and co-prevalence: evidence from Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan.

BACKGROUND: The increasing number of patients co-affected with Diabetes and TB may place individuals with low socio-economic status at particular risk of persistent poverty. Kyrgyz health sector reforms aim at reducing this burden, with the provision of essential health services free at the point of use through a State-Guaranteed Benefit Package (SGBP). However, despite a declining trend in out-of-pocket expenditure, there is still a considerable funding gap in the SGBP. Using data from Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, this study aims to explore how households cope with the economic burden of Diabetes, TB and co-prevalence. METHODS: This study uses cross-sectional data collected in 2010 from Diabetes and TB patients in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. Quantitative questionnaires were administered to 309 individuals capturing information on patients' socioeconomic status and a range of coping strategies. Coarsened exact matching (CEM) is used to generate socio-economically balanced patient groups. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression are used for data analysis. RESULTS: TB patients are much younger than Diabetes and co-affected patients. Old age affects not only the health of the patients, but also the patient's socio-economic context. TB patients are more likely to be employed and to have higher incomes while Diabetes patients are more likely to be retired. Co-affected patients, despite being in the same age group as Diabetes patients, are less likely to receive pensions but often earn income in informal arrangements. Out-of-pocket (OOP) payments are higher for Diabetes care than for TB care. Diabetes patients cope with the economic burden by using social welfare support. TB patients are most often in a position to draw on income or savings. Co-affected patients are less likely to receive social welfare support than Diabetes patients. Catastrophic health spending is more likely in Diabetes and co-affected patients than in TB patients. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that while OOP are moderate for TB affected patients, there are severe consequences for Diabetes affected patients. As a result of the underfunding of the SGBP, Diabetes and co-affected patients are challenged by OOP. Especially those who belong to lower socio-economic groups are challenged in coping with the economic burden.

Good Health at Low Cost 25 years on: lessons for the future of health systems strengthening.

In 1985, the Rockefeller Foundation published Good health at low cost to discuss why some countries or regions achieve better health and social outcomes than do others at a similar level of income and to show the role of political will and socially progressive policies. 25 years on, the Good Health at Low Cost project revisited these places but looked anew at Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Kyrgyzstan, Thailand, and the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, which have all either achieved substantial improvements in health or access to services or implemented innovative health policies relative to their neighbours. A series of comparative case studies (2009-11) looked at how and why each region accomplished these changes. Attributes of success included good governance and political commitment, effective bureaucracies that preserve institutional memory and can learn from experience, and the ability to innovate and adapt to resource limitations. Furthermore, the capacity to respond to population needs and build resilience into health systems in the face of political unrest, economic crises, and natural disasters was important. Transport infrastructure, female empowerment, and education also played a part. Health systems are complex and no simple recipe exists for success. Yet in the countries and regions studied, progress has been assisted by institutional stability, with continuity of reforms despite political and economic turmoil, learning lessons from experience, seizing windows of opportunity, and ensuring sensitivity to context. These experiences show that improvements in health can still be achieved in countries with relatively few resources, though strategic investment is necessary to address new challenges such as complex chronic diseases and growing population expectations.

Diabetes in Kyrgyzstan: changes between 2002 and 2009.

Health system reform in Kyrgyzstan is seen as a relative success story in central Asia. Initially, most attention focused on structural changes, and it is only since 2006 that the delivery of care and the experience of health service users have risen on the agenda. One exception from the earlier period was a rapid appraisal of the management of diabetes, undertaken in 2002. Using that study as a baseline, we describe the findings of a new evaluation of diabetes management, undertaken in 2009, using the Rapid Assessment Protocol for Insulin Access, now implemented in seven countries. Access to care has improved through the creation of the Family Medical Centres and the deployment of endocrinologists to them. Another improvement is the access to insulin and related medicines, although assessment of the procurement system reveals that the government is getting very poor value for money. Looking ahead, there are grounds for optimism that the passage of the law on diabetes may progressively have a greater impact. Although the law is not yet fully implemented, it has enabled the diabetes associations to defend the rights of their members. This increased capacity is credited with some improvements in diabetes care.

How resilient is health financing policy in Europe to economic shocks? Evidence from the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2008 global financial crisis.

The COVID-19 pandemic triggered an economic shock just ten years after the shock of the 2008 global financial crisis. Economic shocks are a challenge for health systems because they reduce government revenue at the same time as they increase the need for publicly financed health care. This article explores the resilience of health financing policy to economic shocks by reviewing policy responses to the financial crisis and COVID-19 in Europe. It finds that some health systems were weakened by responses to the 2008 crisis. Responses to the pandemic show evidence of lessons learnt from the earlier crisis but also reveal weaknesses in health financing policy that limit national preparedness to face economic shocks, particularly in countries with social health insurance schemes. These weaknesses highlight where permanent changes are needed to strengthen resilience in future: countries will have to find ways to reduce cyclicality in coverage policy and revenue-raising; increase the priority given to health in allocating public spending; and ensure that resources are used to meet equity and efficiency goals. Although many health systems are likely to face budgetary pressure in the years ahead, the experience of the 2008 crisis shows that austerity is not an option because it undermines resilience and progress towards universal health coverage.

Improving clinical practice in primary care for the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases: a multi-actor approach to two regional pilot projects in Kazakhstan.

Improving access to quality services is integral to achieving better outcomes for noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). In Kazakhstan, like other countries with historically centralized governance models, key to improving quality is instilling a common and shared understanding of the roles and responsibilities in correspondence with the multifaceted nature of quality of care. This review details the experience of two pilot projects implemented in Kazakhstan's regions of Kyzylorda and Mangystau over a three-year period with the aim to improve clinical practice through a multi-actor, multi-intervention approach. Adopting a health system perspective, the pilots, by design, introduced interventions targeting four actors: policy-makers; health facility managers; health practitioners and patients. The review draws on the following sources of data: rapid baseline assessments; implementation plans, curriculums and other pilot-related material; a mid-way joint implementation meeting; intervention-specific evaluations; and a final external evaluation. The multi-actor, multi-intervention approach to the pilot projects showed some improvements to service outputs, in particular for cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk assessment and decreases in hospitalization rates for hypertension. The pilot projects also illustrated progress in working towards a shared understanding of the different roles of actors for improving quality of care, appreciating the complementarity of individual actors working towards improved population health and in establishing a culture of learning through the exchange of ideas and practices. The importance of responsibility across health system actors for outcomes is vital for the NCD agenda. This approach offers relevant policy lessons for similar centralized governance systems.

Who pays for health care in Asia?

We estimate the distributional incidence of health care financing in 13 Asian territories that account for 55% of the Asian population. In all territories, higher-income households contribute more to the financing of health care. The better-off contribute more as a proportion of ability to pay in most low- and lower-middle-income territories. Health care financing is slightly regressive in three high-income economies with universal social insurance. Direct taxation is the most progressive source of finance and is most so in poorer economies. In universal systems, social insurance is proportional to regressive. In high-income economies, the out-of-pocket (OOP) payments are proportional or regressive while in low-income economies the better-off spend relatively more OOP. But in most low-/middle-income countries, the better-off not only pay more, they also get more health care.

Patients' preferences for healthcare system reforms in Hungary: a conjoint analysis.

OBJECTIVES: To illustrate how conjoint analysis can be used to identify patient preferences for healthcare policies, and to measure preferences for healthcare reforms in Hungary. DATA SOURCE/STUDY SETTING: Data was collected via a mail-based survey and a direct survey administered in a rheumatology out-patient centre in Flór Ferenc County Hospital, Budapest, Hungary (n = 86). STUDY DESIGN: We designed and administered a conjoint analysis to the study population. Attributes and attribute levels were developed on the basis of key informant interviews and a literature review. Additional demographic, occupation and healthcare utilisation data were also collected using surveys. A mixed effects linear probability model was estimated holding respondent characteristics constant and correcting for clustering. DATA COLLECTION: Conjoint analysis questionnaires were administered by a physician to 50 consecutive rheumatology patients in a clinic and an additional 36 were mailed by post. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The response rate for the physician-administered survey was 98% (but 18% of these were excluded for inconsistent preferences) and 53% for the mail survey, leaving a final sample of 59. Regression results (R2 = 56.8%) indicated that patients preferred a health system that was not cost constrained (p = 0.003), was based on solidarity (p < 0.001) and where patients were empowered (p = 0.024). Further, they would choose a system with no choice of provider to avoid co-payments (p = 0.005). CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that patients have clear preferences for healthcare system policy. In order to develop evidence-based healthcare policy and to empower patients in the healthcare system, methods such as conjoint analysis offer a simple yet theoretically grounded basis for policy making.

Tajikistan: Health System Review.

The pace of health reforms in Tajikistan has been slow and in many aspects the health system is still shaped by the countrys Soviet legacy. The country has the lowest total health expenditure per capita in the WHO European Region, much of it financed privately through out-of-pocket payments. Public financing depends principally on regional and local authorities, thus compounding regional inequalities across the country. The high share of private out-of-pocket payments undermines a range of health system goals, including financial protection, equity, efficiency and quality. The efficiency of the health system is also undermined by outdated provider payment mechanisms and lack of pooling of funds. Quality of care is another major concern, due to factors such as insufficient training, lack of evidence-based clinical guidelines, underuse of generic drugs, poor infrastructure and equipment (particularly at the regional level) and perverse financial incentives for physicians in the form of out-of-pocket payments. Health reforms have aimed to strengthen primary health care, but it still suffers from underinvestment and low prestige. A basic benefit package and capitation-based financing of primary health care have been introduced as pilots but have not yet been rolled out to the rest of the country. The National Health Strategy envisages substantial reforms in health financing, including nationwide introduction of capitation-based payments for primary health care and more than doubling public expenditure on health by 2020; it remains to be seen whether this will be achieved.

Kyrgyzstan: Health system review.

Kyrgyzstan has undertaken wide-ranging reforms of its health system in a challenging socioeconomic and political context. The country has developed two major health reform programmes after becoming independent: Manas (1996 to 2006) and Manas Taalimi (2006 to 2010). These reforms introduced comprehensive structural changes to the health care delivery system with the aim of strengthening primary health care, developing family medicine and restructuring the hospital sector.Major service delivery improvements have included the introduction of new clinical practice guidelines, improvements in the provision and use of pharmaceuticals, quality improvements in the priority programmes for mother and child health, cardiovascular diseases, tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS, strengthening of public health and improvements in medical education. A Community Action for Health programme was introduced through new village health committees, enhancing health promotion and allowing individuals and communities to take more responsibility for their own health. Health financing reform consisted of the introduction of a purchaser provider split and the establishment of a single payer for health services under the state-guaranteed benefit package (SGBP). Responsibility for purchasing health services has been consolidated under the Mandatory Health Insurance Fund (MHIF), which pools general revenue and health insurance funding. Funds have been pooled at national level since 2006, replacing the previous pooling at oblast level. The transition from oblast-based pooling of funds to pooling at the national level allowed the MHIF to distribute funds more equitably for the SGBP and the Additional Drug Package. Although utilization of both primary care and hospital services declined during the 1990s and early 2000s, it is increasing again. There is increasing equality of access across regions, improved financial protection and a decline in informal payments, but more efforts will be required in these areas in the future.

Trends in out-of-pocket payments for health care in Kyrgyzstan, 2001-2007.

Within the countries of the former Soviet Union, the Kyrgyz Republic has been a pioneer in reforming the system of health care finance. Since the introduction of its compulsory health insurance fund in 1997, the country has gradually moved from subsidizing the supply of services to subsidizing the purchase of services through the 'single payer' of the health insurance fund. In 2002 the government introduced a new co-payment for inpatients along with a basic benefit package. A key objective of the reforms has been to replace the burgeoning system of unofficial informal payments for health care with a transparent official co-payment, thereby reducing the financial burden of health care spending for the poor. This article investigates trends in out-of-pocket payments for health care using the results of a series of nationally representative household surveys conducted over the period 2001-2007, when the reforms were being rolled out. The analysis shows that there has been a significant improvement in financial access to health care amongst the population. The proportion paying state providers for consultations fell between 2004 and 2007. As a result of the introduction of co-payments for hospital care, fewer inpatients report making payments to medical personnel, but when they are made, payments are high, especially to surgeons and anaesthetists. However, although financial access for outpatient care has improved, the burden of health care payments amongst the poor remains significant.