Effects of green light on the growth of spotted halibut, Verasper variegatus, and Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus, and on the endocrine system of spotted halibut at different water temperatures.

We have previously shown that the somatic growth of barfin flounder, Verasper moseri, was promoted by green light. The present study was undertaken to elucidate whether growth-promoting effect of green light can be observed in other flatfishes and to understand the roles of endocrine systems in green light-induced growth. Herein, we demonstrated facilitation of growth by green light in the spotted halibut, Verasper variegatus, and Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus. Blue and blue-green light showed potencies that were similar to that of green light, while the potencies of red and white light were equivalent to that of ambient light (control). We also examined the effects of green light on growth and endocrine systems of V. variegatus at various water temperatures. Growth of the fish was facilitated by green light at four different water temperatures examined; the fish were reared for 31 days at 12 and 21 °C, and 30 days at 15 and 18 °C. Increase in condition factor was observed at 15 and 18 °C. Among the genes encoding hypothalamic hormones, expression levels of melanin-concentrating hormone 1 (mch1) were enhanced by green light at the four water temperatures. Expression levels of other genes including mch2 increased at certain water temperatures. No difference was observed in the expression levels of pituitary hormone genes, including those of growth hormone and members of proopiomelanocortin family, and in plasma levels of members of the insulin family. The results suggest that green light may generally stimulate growth of flatfishes. Moreover, it is conceivable that MCH, production of which is stimulated by green light, is a key hormone; it augments food intake, which is intimately coupled with somatic growth.

Effects of different green light intensities on the growth performance and endocrine properties of barfin flounder Verasper moseri.

We previously reported that the somatic growth of barfin flounder, Verasper moseri, was effectively stimulated by the green light compared to the blue and red lights. Herein, we report the effects of different green light intensities on the growth and endocrine system of the fish. Fish were reared in a dark room with light from a light-emitting diode (LED) at a peak wavelength of 518nm under controlled photoperiod (10.5:13.5h, light:dark cycle; 06:00-16:30, light) with three levels of photon flux density (PFD)-2 (low), 7 (medium), or 21 (high) µmol·m-2·s-1 at the water surface. The average water temperature was 10.2°C, and the fish were fed until satiety. The fish reared under high PFD of green light showed the highest specific growth rates, followed by the medium PFD group. Under high PFD, the fish showed the highest amount of melanin-concentrating hormone mRNA in their brains and insulin in plasma, while the lowest amount of growth hormone was observed in their pituitary glands. These results suggest that the green light stimulated the growth of barfin flounders in a light intensity-dependent manner in association with their central and peripheral endocrine systems. However, when the fish were reared in an ordinary room where they received both ambient and green LED lights, the fish under LED and ambient light grew faster than those under ambient light only (control). Moreover, no difference was observed in the specific growth rate of the fish reared under the three different green LED light intensities, suggesting that the growth was equally stimulated by the green light within a certain range of intensities under ambient light.

Chemical and physical guidance of fish spermatozoa into the egg through the micropyle†,‡.

Eggs of teleost fish, unlike those of many other animals, allow sperm entry only at a single site, a narrow canal in the egg's chorion called the micropyle. In some fish (e.g., flounder, herring, and Alaska pollock), the micropyle is a narrow channel in the chorion, with or without a shallow depression around the outer opening of micropyle. In some other fish (e.g., salmon, pufferfish, cod, and medaka), the micropyle is like a funnel with a conical opening. Eggs of all the above fish have a glycoprotein tightly bound to the chorion surface around the micropyle. This glycoprotein directs spermatozoa into the micropylar canal in a Ca2+-dependent manner. This substance, called the micropylar sperm attractant or MISA, increases fertilization efficiency and is essential in herring. In flounder, salmon, and perhaps medaka, fertilization is possible without MISA, but its absence makes fertilization inefficient because most spermatozoa swim over the micropyle without entering it. The mechanism underlying sperm-MISA interactions is yet to be determined, but at least in herring the involvement of Ca2+ and K+ channel proteins, as well as CatSper and adenylyl cyclase, is very likely. In some other fish (e.g., zebrafish, loach, and goldfish), the chorion around the micropyle is deeply indented (e.g., zebrafish and loach) or it has radially or spirally arranged grooves around the outer opening of the micropyle (e.g., goldfish). MISA is absent from the eggs of these fish and sperm entry into micropylar canal seems to be purely physical.

Effects of hyperglycemia on bone metabolism and bone matrix in goldfish scales.

Increased risk of fracture associated with type 2 diabetes has been a topic of recent concern. Fracture risk is related to a decrease in bone strength, which can be affected by bone metabolism and the quality of the bone. To investigate the cause of the increased fracture rate in patients with diabetes through analyses of bone metabolism and bone matrix protein properties, we used goldfish scales as a bone model for hyperglycemia. Using the scales of seven alloxan-treated and seven vehicle-treated control goldfish, we assessed bone metabolism by analyzing the activity of marker enzymes and mRNA expression of marker genes, and we measured the change in molecular weight of scale matrix proteins with SDS-PAGE. After only a 2-week exposure to hyperglycemia, the molecular weight of α- and ß-fractions of bone matrix collagen proteins changed incrementally in the regenerating scales of hyperglycemic goldfish compared with those of euglycemic goldfish. In addition, the relative ratio of the γ-fraction significantly increased, and a δ-fraction appeared after adding glyceraldehyde-a candidate for the formation of advanced glycation end products in diabetes-to isolated type 1 collagen in vitro. The enzymatic activity and mRNA expression of osteoblast and osteoclast markers were not significantly different between hyperglycemic and euglycemic goldfish scales. These results indicate that hyperglycemia is likely to affect bone quality through glycation of matrix collagen from an early stage of hyperglycemia. Therefore, non-enzymatic glycation of collagen fibers in bone matrix may lead to the deterioration of bone quality from the onset of diabetes.

Development of a widely applicable immunoassay for insulin in marine teleosts that regulates cross-reactivity using biotinylation and inhibits interference by plasma components.

Amino acids are important insulinotropins in fish, and their effects vary between amino acids and fish species. Insulin levels are indicative of growth efficiency and stress levels in fish; however, interspecies comparisons of insulin levels are hampered by the difficulty of measuring insulin concentration in each fish. We developed a widely applicable competitive immunoassay using biotinylated yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) insulin for measuring insulin in marine teleosts, including yellowtail and red seabream (Pagrus major), which are the most common species raised by aquaculture in Japan. Amino acid sequence substitution was limited at the ninth residue of the A-chain (A9) between these two species, and analysis of the primary structures of insulins from six phylogenetically far teleosts suggested that the sequences of yellowtail and red seabream insulins are identical to those of many teleosts, except the A9 residue. However, A9 is known to be an epitope that confers cross-reactive differences on insulin. We solved this problem through immunoreactive invalidation of this residue by biotinylation. The binding-inhibition curves of yellowtail and red seabream insulins were identical following the use of this technique. However, yellowtail and red seabream plasma was found to contain components that interfere with immunoassays. This problem was solved by the extraction of plasma using equal volume of acid-ethanol in yellowtail and by cooling at 0°C during the cross-reaction between the ligand and antibody in red seabream. Serially diluted plasma samples from both species exhibited linearity after these treatments. In a recovery test using plasma with added yellowtail insulin, the average recovery varied from 96.2% to 109.4%. A post-feeding rise in insulin was confirmed by this immunoassay in yellowtail, and peak of the rise was 39.8±7ng/ml at 1h postfeeding from 3.9±1.1ng/ml at 0h. This indicates that this assay is sufficient for measuring the baseline concentration of plasma insulin after starvation and is a useful indicator of nutritional status in yellowtail, as in other teleosts. This immunoassay demonstrated high performance and resisted interference from plasma components; consequently, it constitutes a useful tool for the interspecies evaluation of insulinotropins and represents a widely applicable insulin immunoassay for many teleosts.

Chronic effects of light irradiated from LED on the growth performance and endocrine properties of barfin flounder Verasper moseri.

We investigated the effects of specific wavelengths of light on the growth of barfin flounder. The fish, reared in white tanks in a dark room, were irradiated with light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs) with peak wavelengths of 464nm (blue), 518nm (green), and 635nm (red) under a controlled photoperiod (10.5:13.5, light-dark cycle; 06:00-16:30, light). Fish were reared for four weeks in three independent experiments at three different water temperatures (averages of 14.9°C, 8.6°C, and 6.6°C). The fish irradiated with blue and green light had higher specific growth rates (% body weight⋅day(-1)) than fish irradiated with red light. Notably, green light had the greatest effect on growth among the three light wavelengths at 6.6°C. In the brains of fish reared at 6.6°C, the amounts of melanin-concentrating hormone 1 mRNA under green light were lower than those under red light, and amounts of proopiomelanocortin-C mRNA under blue and green light were higher than those under red light. No differences were observed for other neuropeptides tested. In the pituitary, no difference was observed in growth hormone mRNA content. In plasma, higher levels of insulin and insulin-like growth factor-I were observed in fish under green light than those of fish under red light. These results suggest that the endocrine systems of barfin flounder are modulated by a specific wavelength of light that stimulates somatic growth.

Plasma insulin levels are regulated by release, rather than transcription or translation, in barfin flounder, Verasper moseri.

We evaluated whether transcription or translation of the preproinsulin gene or insulin release into plasma is the primary regulator of plasma insulin level in barfin flounder. Three experimental groups were used: one tested 2h after feeding (Fed), one tested after fasting for 5 days (Fasted), and one tested 2 h after feeding following 5 days of fasting (Refed). No significant differences in insulin transcription, insulin concentrations in the principal islets (PI), or plasma total insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) levels were observed between the three groups. In contrast, plasma insulin level in the Fasted group was significantly lower (P<0.002) than that in the other groups. These results suggest that insulin release is the primary regulator of plasma insulin level and is more sensitive to short-term changes in nutritional conditions than IGF-I level. Furthermore, we estimated the capacity for insulin release. Based on various individual measures, the average insulin stored in the PI was 82.8 µg/kg body weight (BW), and the maximum plasma content of insulin was estimated to be <1.7 µg/kg BW. The half-life of plasma insulin in diabetogenic chemically (alloxan) treated flounder injected with insulin was estimated to be 2.79 h, which is much longer than that in mammals, assuming a two-compartment model for the ß phase. These results suggest that the capacity for insulin release in fish is ensured by at least two systems, such as the ability to store excess insulin in Brockman bodies, and enhanced efficiency of insulin storage by elongating its half-life.

Sperm attractant in the micropyle region of fish and insect eggs.

In some animals, such as fish, insects, and cephalopods, the thick egg coat has a narrow canal-a micropyle-through which spermatozoa enter the eggs. In fish, there is no indication that spermatozoa are attracted by eggs from a distance, but once spermatozoa come near the outer opening of the micropyle, they exhibit directed movement toward it, suggesting that a substance exists in this defined region to attract spermatozoa. Since Coomassie Blue (CB) binds preferentially to the micropyle region in flounder, herring, steelhead, and other fish, it probably stains this sperm guidance substance. This substance-a glycoprotein based on lectin staining-is bound tightly to the surface of the chorion, but can be removed readily by protease treatment. Although fertilization in fish (flounder) is possible after removal of this substance, its absence makes fertilization inefficient, as reflected by a drastic reduction in fertilization rate. The sperm "attraction" to the micropyle opening is species specific and is dependent on extracellular Ca(2+). Eggs of some insects, including Drosophila, have distinct micropyle caps with CB affinity, which also may prove to assist sperm entry. Our attempts to fertilize fly eggs in vitro were not successful.

The use of poly-L-lysine to facilitate examination of sperm entry into pelagic, non-adhesive fish eggs.

The fish egg is surrounded by a thick envelope called the chorion. The fertilizing spermatozoon enters the egg through a canal-like structure in the chorion, the micropyle. Examination of micropyle at fertilization is difficult if eggs are large and have no distinct landmarks surrounding the micropyle, or if they are positively buoyant in water. Eggs of many commercially important fishes (e.g., flounder, sea bream and eel) are buoyant in water or only slightly adhere to solid objects (e.g., sands, rock and water plants), which makes observation of spermatozoa at fertilization difficult. Here, we report that such eggs can be firmly attached to plastic and glass dishes that have been previously coated with poly-L-lysine. These adhering eggs can be fertilized and develop normally on the dishes. Observations of micropyles of three fish species, before and after sperm entry are presented.

The yellowtail (Seriola quinqueradiata) genome and transcriptome atlas of the digestive tract.

Seriola quinqueradiata (yellowtail) is the most widely farmed and economically important fish in aquaculture in Japan. In this study, we used the genome of haploid yellowtail fish larvae for de novo assembly of whole-genome sequences, and built a high-quality draft genome for the yellowtail. The total length of the assembled sequences was 627.3 Mb, consisting of 1,394 scaffold sequences (>2 kb) with an N50 length of 1.43 Mb. A total of 27,693 protein-coding genes were predicted for the draft genome, and among these, 25,832 predicted genes (93.3%) were functionally annotated. Given our lack of knowledge of the yellowtail digestive system, and using the annotated draft genome as a reference, we conducted an RNA-Seq analysis of its three digestive organs (stomach, intestine and rectum). The RNA-Seq results highlighted the importance of certain genes in encoding proteolytic enzymes necessary for digestion and absorption in the yellowtail gastrointestinal tract, and this finding will accelerate development of formulated feeds for this species. Since this study offers comprehensive annotation of predicted protein-coding genes, it has potential broad application to our understanding of yellowtail biology and aquaculture.

Identification of a novel yolk protein in the hermatypic coral Galaxea fascicularis.

The reef-building (or hermatypic) coral Galaxea fascicularis (Anthozoa, Hexacorallia, Scleractinia) has an annual reproductive cycle. Females of G. fascicularis release packages (or ;bundles') of eggs for external fertilization, whereas male individuals form bundles consisting of sperm and infertile ;pseudo-eggs' that are thought to confer buoyancy to the male bundle. In the egg of G. fascicularis, four proteins (GfEP-1 to 4) were found to be stored in high abundance, and three of them (GfEP-1, 2 and 3) are generated by processing of a vitellogenin (Vg)-like precursor. In the present study, a cDNA encoding GfEP-4 was cloned and its sequence determined (GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ accession no. AB259859). The amino acid sequence of this protein does not exhibit similarity to known proteins, including Vgs or other yolk proteins found in some invertebrates. The expression of GfEP-4 mRNA was observed in females, and also in the majority of males examined, although expression levels were lower than in females. The GfEP-4 protein was detected in pseudo-eggs, where its concentration was 20-100 times lower than in eggs. In contrast, GfEP-1, 2 and 3 were not detected in pseudo-eggs. A protein (28 kDa) which cross-reacted with anti-GfEP-4 antibodies was detected in eggs of the coral Montipora digitata, suggesting the possibility that homologs of this protein are present in the eggs of other scleractinian corals.

cDNA cloning and sequence analysis of preproendothelin-1 (PPET-1) from salmon, Oncorhynchus keta.

The presence of endothelin (ET)-like immunoreactivity and the cardiovascular effects of mammalian ET-1 in fish have been reported. To identify ET-related peptides in fish, we screened the cDNA library of the salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) stomach by means of rapid amplification of cDNA ends, and we cloned cDNAs encoding an ET-related peptide. The salmon ET-related sequence of 21 amino acids is identical to the trout ET-1 peptide recently purified from kidney specimens of Oncorhynchus mykiss. The deduced amino acid sequence of salmon pre-proET-1 (PPET-1) comprises 244 amino acids, including a putative signal sequence and mature ET-1, as well as big ET-1 and ET-1-like sequences. This precursor, the first reported PPET-1 sequence for Salmoniformes, Teleostei, has low homology with the sequences of human, mouse, frog (Xenopus laevis), and zebrafish (Danio rerio) PPET-1 (26%, 29%, 24%, and 39%, respectively).

Development of non-radioisotopic immunoassay systems for measuring flounder IGF-I.

A time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay system (TR-FIA) for measuring flounder insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) was developed using biotinylated flounder IGF-I, anti-fish IGF-I antiserum and europium-avidin conjugate. The detection limit per well was <5 pg/well corresponding to <0.5 ng/ml in a basic procedure for sample of 10 microl/well and to <0.08 ng/ml in a procedure modified for high volume samples (up to 70 microl/well). Specificity of the assay was validated using various IGF-Is and insulins. All IGFs except seabream IGF-I showed very low or no crossreactivity. Binding inhibition curves for flounder and seabream IGF-Is were completely identical to each other. Intra- and interassay variations ranged from coefficients of variations of 3.9% to 7.2%. Recovery tests using barfin flounder plasma varied from 82.7 to 101.6% in the added range from 20 to 160 ng/ml. This assay system was applied for measuring total plasma IGF-I in barfin flounder injected porcine growth hormone (GH). A group injected with GH at the dose of 0.05 IU/gBW showed a significant increase of total plasma IGF-I compared with those of albumin-injected (control) and initial groups. In addition, I was able to substitute time-resolved fluorometric detection in this assay system with enzymatic fluorometric detection (FIA). Binding inhibition curve for flounder IGF-I in this substituted assay system showed equal performance with that of the TR-FIA system. Correlation of IGF-I levels between TR-FIA and FIA was high (r(2)=0.957) in plasma samples from barfin flounders in various physiological conditions. Thus, the present study shows precision and efficiency of two non-radioisotopic immunoassay systems for measuring flounder IGF-I.

Molecular and functional characterization of opsins in barfin flounder (Verasper moseri).

Green light irradiation facilitates the somatic growth of barfin flounder (Verasper moseri). However, the V. moseri visual system, which may be associated with somatic growth by acting on the endocrine system upon exposure to this particular wavelength, remains largely unexplored. Herein, we characterized the visual opsin repertoire of V. moseri to understand the molecular basis underlying this effect. The five types of visual opsins that are found in vertebrates were cloned from RNA that was extracted from the eyes of V. moseri. Notably, V. moseri possessed one pseudogene (RH2-A) and two intact (RH2-B and RH2-C) copies of "green-sensitive" opsin genes. The wavelengths of maximum absorption spectra (λmax) for each of the reconstituted photopigments were 552nm for "red-sensitive" LWS, 506nm for RH2-B, 490nm for RH2-C, 482nm and 416nm for "blue-sensitive" SWS2A and SWS2B, respectively, 367nm for "ultraviolet-sensitive" SWS1, and 494nm for "dim-light sensitive rhodopsin" RH1. The λmax of SWS2A was longer than that of any other reported vertebrate SWS2 opsin. By measuring the expression level of these opsin genes with quantitative RT-PCR in 3-, 15-, and 27-month-old fish, we found that RH2-B and SWS2A were expressed at a constant level, whereas the expression of LWS, RH2-C, SWS2B, and SWS1 opsin genes decreased, and that of RH1 increased with age. Barfin flounders inhabit inshore waters at a young age and expand their habitat to deep sea areas as they age, and green light is relatively abundant in deep water compared to the lights of other wavelengths in shallow water. Our results indicate that gene repertoire and expression profile of the opsin genes of barfin flounder are adaptive to their habitat shift that occurs during development, with some opsins acquiring a distinct λmax.

Alpha-fetoprotein-producing esophageal carcinoma: a case report.

We report herein a rare case of esophageal carcinoma producing alpha-fetoprotein (AFP). A 69-year-old man presenting elevated AFP was admitted in order to investigate its origin, which several liver examinations done before admission had not revealed. At admission, his serum AFP was 76.9 ng/ml whereas other tumor markers were within normal range. As the patient complained of mild swallowing disturbance, gastrointestinal examinations were performed, and an esophageal carcinoma was found at the esophagogastric junction. The patient underwent subtotal esophagectomy and the esophagus was reconstructed by gastric tube. The postoperative course was uneventful and the serum AFP level normalized immediately after the operation. Histopathological examination demonstrated the tumor to be poorly-differentiated adenosquamous carcinoma, which contained scattered adenocarcinoma composed of clear cells positive to AFP by an immunohistochemical stain. The patient has been well for six months after the surgery without any sign of recurrence.

Determination of Ghrelin Structure in the Barfin Flounder (Verasper moseri) and Involvement of Ingested Fatty Acids in Ghrelin Acylation.

Ghrelin is a peptide hormone that is acylated with a fatty acid, usually n-octanoic acid, at the third amino acid (aa) residue (usually a serine or threonine), and this acylation is known to be essential for ghrelin activity not only in mammals but also in non-mammals, such as fish. However, the modification mechanisms of ghrelin modification in fish are not known. In this study, we elucidated the structure of ghrelin in a teleost, the barfin flounder (Verasper moseri), and determined whether ingested free fatty acids of various chain lengths participated in ghrelin acylation. Complementary DNA cloning revealed the barfin flounder prepro-ghrelin to be a 106-aa peptide and the mature ghrelin to be a 20-aa peptide (GSSFLSPSHKPPNKGKPPRA). However, purification of ghrelin peptides from stomach extracts demonstrated that the major form of the hormone was a 19-aa decanoylated peptide [GSS(C10:0)FLSPSHKPPNKGKPPR] missing the last alanine of the 20-aa peptide. Ingestion of feed enriched with n-heptanoic acid (C7), n-octanoic acid (C8), or n-non-anoic acid (C9) changed the modification status of the peptide: ingestion of C8 or C9 increased the amount of C8:0 or C9:0 19-aa ghrelin, respectively, but no C7:0 ghrelin was isolated after ingestion of C7. These results indicate that ingested free fatty acids are substrates for ghrelin acylation in the barfin flounder, but the types of free fatty acids utilized as substrates may be limited.

Phylogenetic diversity of ammonia-oxidizing archaea and bacteria in biofilters of recirculating aquaculture systems.

We constructed ammonia monooxygenase alpha subunit (amoA) gene clone libraries of ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and bacteria (AOB) from three biofiltration tanks used for closed marine fish culture systems. The number of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) found in any one place was 76%-80% of the total OTUs in each tank for AOA and 100% for AOB when OUTs were defined on the basis of a 5% nucleotide difference. In a phylogenetic tree, all of the AOA amoA sequences fell into a cluster, which contained Candidatus Nitrosopumilus maritimus. All of the AOB amoA sequences were related to the Nitrosospira lineage. These results indicated that different ammonia oxidizers were present in different tanks, but that the dominant phylogenetic types were stable. In a biofiltration tank to which a high concentration of ammonium chloride was added periodically to condition the biofilter materials, most of the AOA amoA sequences were different from the dominant one observed in the fish culture tanks. The AOB amoA sequences were also different, and were similar to those of Nitrosomonas aestuarii. These findings suggest that high concentration ammonia loads have a considerable affect on ammonia-oxidizer community composition.

Amino acids are more important insulinotropins than glucose in a teleost fish, barfin flounder (Verasper moseri).

The insulinotropic effects of eighteen L-amino acids, two D-amino acids, and glucose were investigated to evaluate the priority of those as stimulators of insulin secretion in barfin flounder (Verasper moseri). This is also the first step in characterizing the insulinotropin-sensing molecule. After intramuscular injection of amino acids or glucose at doses of 3.50 and 1.75 mmol/kg body weight, plasma was collected periodically to determine plasma insulin level. Twelve amino acids and glucose showed insulinotropic effects. Four L-amino acids (Arg, Ala, Met, Ser) produced significantly higher integrated levels of plasma insulin (12.4-34.8 ng/ml) than glucose (average: 4.7 ng/ml) during 3h after injection. D-Amino acids (Arg, Ala) showed no activity. This indicates that many amino acids have strong insulinotropic activities and supports a classic idea, which is well known but has not been confirmed, that amino acids rather than glucose are the important insulinotropins in fish. This study also indicates that the insulinotropic activity of amino acids is restricted to L-amino acids and establishes which amino acids are the strongest stimulators of the insulinotropin sensor in barfin flounder. Co-injection of insulin and L-Thr, L-Ala, or glucose produced a hypoglycemic and hypoaminoacidemic state, indicating that insulin can lower blood amino acid level as well as blood sugar level. This study suggests that insulin plays a more important role than glucose in the regulation of blood L-amino acid metabolism, at least in flounder.

Precursor structure of egg proteins in the coral Galaxea fascicularis.

In the egg of the reef coral Galaxea fascicularis, four proteins (named GfEP-1 to -4) are stored in high abundance. In the present study, a cDNA containing a full-length open reading frame for GfEP-1 was cloned, and the translated protein sequence was compared to the N-terminal sequences of GfEP-2, -3, and -4. GfEP-1 and -2 were shown to be generated by processing of a precursor of 1439 amino acids, and GfEP-3 turned out to be a partial fragment of GfEP-2. The precursor protein contained regions which exhibited similarities to vitellogenins (Vgs) in bilaterian animals (oviparous vertebrates and invertebrates including nematodes, arthropods, and molluscs). This study reports the first cloning and characterization of a full-length cDNA encoding a Vg in a non-bilaterian animal, and argues that the emergence of Vg as a precursor of egg yolk proteins predated the divergence of the cnidarian and bilaterian lineages.