Activation of murine macrophages by membrane proteins from Tritrichomonas foetus grown on iron- and calcium-rich conditions.

Tritrichomonas foetus is a protozoan parasite that causes a venereal disease in cattle limiting reproduction by abortions and sterility. The immune response against this parasite is poorly understood. Since the iron and calcium ions are important regulators of the microenvironment of the urogenital tract in cattle, we decided to evaluate the role of these divalent cations on the antigenicity of membrane proteins of T. foetus on macrophage activation as one of the first inflammatory responses towards this pathogen. Colorimetric methods and ELISA were used to detect the nitric oxide and oxygen peroxide production and expression of cytokines in culture supernatant from macrophage incubated with membrane proteins from T. foetus cultured in iron- and calcium-rich conditions. qRT-PCR assays were used to evaluate the transcript expression of genes involved in the inflammatory response on the macrophages. The membrane proteins used for in vitro stimulation caused the up-regulation of the iNOS and NOX-2 genes as well as the generation of NO and H2 O2 in murine macrophages on a dependent way of the metal concentrations. Additionally, after stimulation, macrophages showed a considerable rise in pro-inflammatory cytokines and a downregulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines, as well as up-regulation in the transcription of the TLR4 and MyD88 genes. These data suggest that membrane proteins of T. foetus induced by iron and calcium can activate an inflammatory specific macrophage response via TLR4/MyD88 signalling pathway.

Exposure of Tritrichomonas foetus to sublethal doses of metronidazole induces a specific proinflammatory response in murine macrophages.

Tritrichomonas foetus is a flagellated parasite that primarily infects the reproductive tissues of livestock, causing bovine trichomoniasis. The cytoplasmic membrane of T. foetus contains various compounds that contribute to adherence, colonization, and pathogenicity. Metronidazole (MTZ) is the main treatment for trichomoniasis, but the emergence of drug-resistant strains is a concern due to improper use and dosing. T. foetus infection induces inflammation, and macrophages are key players in the immune response. However, our understanding of the host's immune response to T. foetus is limited, and the specific mechanisms underlying these responses are not well understood. This study aimed to investigate the impact of T. foetus surface proteins from trophozoites cultured under different sublethal MTZ conditions (MTZ-treated T. foetus MPs) on macrophage activation. By analyzing cytokine levels and gene expression in murine macrophages, we demonstrated that MTZ-treated T. foetus MPs induce a specific proinflammatory response. MTZ-treated T. foetus MPs-exposed macrophages exhibited a higher NO and H2 O2 production and overexpression of iNOS and NOX-2 genes in comparison to untreated T. foetus. Additionally, MTZ-treated T. foetus MPs triggered a significant induction of the proinflammatory cytokines IL-1ß, IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ, as well as the overexpression of the TLR4, MyD88, and NF-κB genes on murine macrophages. The study aimed to unravel the immunological response and potential proinflammatory pathways involved in T. foetus infection and MTZ stress. Understanding the immune responses and mechanisms through which T. foetus surface proteins activate macrophages can contribute to the development of new therapeutic strategies for controlling bovine trichomoniasis.

Macrophages morphology and cytokine reeducation by ex situ copper thiol complexes.

OBJECTIVE: To study the reeducation effect of copper thiol complexes on macrophage morphology and cytokine expression. METHODS: The effect of copper thiol complexes was assessed on murine macrophages by the cell morphology observed through optical microscopy, while the expression of cytokines by protein abundance after stimulation. A viability experiment was performed on PMBC to confirm that copper complexes do not affect other cells. RESULTS: The M1 shape was reported after treatment with copper thiol complexes at 1-200 µM, while M2 behavior was documented between 50 and 800 µM. Surprisingly, a thin elongate morphology was observed between 400-800 µM like the M2 shape. The expression of M1 cytokines was noted ranging from 1 to 100 µM, with the highest yield at 1 µM (2243 pg/µL) for the copper-penicillamine complex. M2 production behavior was observed at 1-800 µM, with the highest abundance close to 1150 pg/µL (200-400 µM) was quantified from the copper-cysteine complex. Finally, LCCu complexes did not induce a cytotoxic response on PBMC while exhibiting a high IL-4 and IL-10 production, similar to their gold analogs. CONCLUSIONS: The capacity of copper thiol complexes to reeducate M1 to M2 morphoexpression can be promising for cell protection by using copper thiol penicillamine or immuno-regeneration of tissues when using copper thiol cysteine.

Birthweight and its association with cardiometabolic risk parameters in rural Maya children from Yucatan, Mexico.

BACKGROUND: Knowledge about the influence of early developmental factors on cardiometabolic health in the Maya is limited. AIM: To analyse the relationship between birthweight (BW) and cardiometabolic parameters in a sample of rural Maya children from Yucatan, Mexico. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: We took anthropometric measurements and obtained data on BW and fasting blood samples in a sample of 75 children aged 5-14 years. Dependent variables were: fat mass index (FMI), body mass index (BMI), glucose (G), triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL), LDL/HDL and TC/HDL ratios and metabolic index (TGxG/HDL2). Outcomes were transformed to y = 100 log(e)x and the resulting estimates are interpreted as symmetrical percentage differences. The main independent variable was BW z-score. Multiple linear regression analyses were used to assess the relationship between BW and outcomes. RESULTS: An increase of one standard deviation in BW predicted 6.6% (95% CI [-11.6, -1.6]) decrease in HDL and 11% (95% CI [3.7, 18.4]), 7.8% (95% CI [2.3, 13.2]) and 19.6% (95% CI [3.1, 36]) increases in LDL/HDL, TC/HDL and metabolic index, respectively. CONCLUSION: Higher birthweights were associated with adverse levels of biochemical parameters in this sample of rural Maya children.

In Vitro Activation of Macrophages by an MHC Class II-restricted Trichomonas Vaginalis TvZIP8-derived Synthetic Peptide.

BACKGROUND: Macrophages play an important role in the inflammatory response towards pathogens and their effector functions depend on the mode of activation which is mediated by recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns, as peptides. Trichomonas vaginalis provokes an inflammatory response in the host in which macrophages are the first line of defense. This study aimed to analyze the effect of a specific peptide derived from the transporter TvZIP8 of T. vaginalis on the activation of macrophages. METHODS: An in silico approach based on computational prediction of epitopes was applied to detect potential murine MHC class II-restricted peptides from TvZIP8 that can activate macrophages and the immunomodulatory activity was evaluated by in vitro stimulation of murine macrophages. RESULTS: Based on binding scores, one peptide denominated TvZIP8-pep was selected for further analysis. In vitro stimulation with synthetic TvZIP8-pep triggered on murine macrophages the NO and H2O2 production and an overexpression of iNOS and NOX-2 genes. Also, a significant increase of pro-inflammatory cytokines: IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNF-α, as well as, overexpression of the TLR4, MyD88, and NF-κB genes and NF-κB activation were observed on macrophages after stimulation with TvZIP8-pep in vitro. Moreover, higher levels of IFN-γ were detected in co-cultures using CD4 + T cells with TvZIP8-pep-stimulated macrophages. CONCLUSION: These results support the potential of TvZIP8 as a promising antigen to stimulates a specific macrophage response against T. vaginalis, but further analyses are required to evaluate their possible potential as a novel antigen for immunodiagnosis and/or vaccine against trichomoniasis.

Antitrichomonal activity and docking analysis of thiazole derivatives as TvMP50 protease inhibitors.

Trichomoniasis, caused by the protozoan Trichomonas vaginalis, is the most prevalent non-viral sexually transmitted infection that affects over 170 million people worldwide. The only type of drug recommended for the therapeutic control of trichomoniasis is the 5-nitroimidazoles, although there have been reports of some undesirable side effects and clinical resistance. Hence, the need for the search for new tricomonicidal agents is necessary. In a previous work, we demonstrated that two 2-amino-4-aryl thiazole derivatives (ATZ-1 and ATZ-2) possess a portent antigiardial effect. In the current paper, we investigated the in vitro antitrichomonal activity of these thiazole compounds. Both ATZ-1 and ATZ-2 reduced the viability and growth of parasites in a dose-dependent manner, with an IC50 value of 0.15 µg/mL and 0.18 µg/mL, respectively. Furthermore, both thiazole compounds were able to decrease the proteolytic activity in T. vaginalis trophozoites compared with untreated parasites. Interestingly, a full proteolytic inhibition profile was observed in the 50-kDa region which was associated with the decreased expression of the gene that codes for the trichomonad protease TvMP50. The docking simulations predicted strong interactions of the thiazole compounds in the TvMP50 protease's active site, suggesting a possible role as protease inhibitors. Our results demonstrate the potential of 2-amino-4-aryl thiazole derivatives as trichomonicidal compounds and could be, mechanistically, involved in the inhibition of key trichomonad proteases.

Anti-inflammatory effects of Chrysophyllum cainito fruit extract in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated mouse peritoneal macrophages.

The present paper sought to investigate the in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory effects of the methanolic extract (ME), hexane-ethyl acetate fraction E (FE) found in Chrysophyllum cainito fruits (CCF), as well the lupeol acetate (LA) obtained from FE on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated mouse peritoneal macrophages. The macrophages were treated with ME, FE or LA at various concentrations and the viability of cells was determined using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide method. Production of pro-inflammatory (IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNF-α) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines, as well as the nitric oxide (NO) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) levels was determined using macrophages treated with ME, FE or LA at various concentrations and stimulated with LPS as an in vitro model. Afterwards, we evaluated the anti-inflammatory effects in vivo using the TPA-induced ear edema and carrageenan-induced paw edema tests in mice and production of inflammatory mediators was estimated in serum samples. The results showed that the ME, FE and LA from fruits, FE and LA were able to trigger an inhibition in NO and H2O2 levels, as well as IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNF-α released by macrophages in a concentration-dependent manner. LA from C. cainito fruits was found to significantly attenuate carrageenan-induced paw edema and TPA-induced ear edema. Therefore, the results suggest ME, FE and LA isolated from C. cainito fruits have anti-inflammatory effects on macrophages without affecting cell viability.

Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of Cuphea aequipetala Cav (Lythraceae).

Cuphea aequipetala Cav (Lythraceae) is an herb used in folk treatment for pain and inflammation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory actions of an ethanol extract from the leaves and stem of Cuphea aequipetala (CAE). The antinociceptive actions of CAE (10-200 mg/kg p.o.) were assessed with the acetic acid-induced writhing, hot plate, and formalin tests. The possible mechanism of action of CAE was evaluated using inhibitors. The effects of CAE on motor coordination were assessed by the rotarod test. The in vitro anti-inflammatory actions of CAE were evaluated using LPS-stimulated primary murine macrophages, and the in vivo anti-inflammatory actions were assessed by the TPA-induced ear oedema and the carrageenan-induced paw oedema tests. The production of inflammatory mediators was estimated from both in vitro and in vivo assays. CAE showed antinociception (ED50 = 90 mg/kg) in the acetic acid test and in the second phase of the formalin test (ED50 = 158 mg/kg). Pretreatment with glibenclamide or L-NAME partially reversed the antinociception shown by the plant extract. CAE (50-200 mg/kg) did not affect motor coordination in mice. CAE increased the production of IL-10 in LPS-stimulated macrophages (EC50 = 10 pg/ml) and, in the carrageenan-induced paw oedema test (threefold increase). In conclusion, CAE induced antinociceptive effects without affecting motor coordination, probably due to the involvement of nitric oxide and ATP-sensitive K+ channels. CAE also exerts in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory effects by increasing the release of IL-10.

Anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects of an ethanol extract from Senna septemtrionalis.

Senna septemtrionalis (Viv.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby (Fabaceae) is a medicinal plant used as a folk remedy for inflammation and pain. The objective of this study was to evaluate the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive actions of an ethanol extract of Senna septemtrionalis aerial parts (SSE). The in vitro anti-inflammatory effects of SSE were assessed using LPS-stimulated macrophages and the subsequent quantification of the levels of cytokines (IL-6, IL-1ß, and TNF-α) with ELISA kits, nitric oxide (NO), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The in vivo anti-inflammatory actions of SSE were evaluated with the TPA-induced ear oedema test and the carrageenan-induced paw oedema test. The antinociceptive actions of SSE (10-200 mg/kg p.o.) were assessed using three models: two chemical assays (formalin-induced orofacial pain and acetic acid-induced visceral pain) and one thermal assay (hot plate). SSE showed in vitro anti-inflammatory actions with IC50 values calculated as follows: 163.3 µg/ml (IL-6), 154.7 µg/ml (H2O2) and > 200 µg/ml (IL-1ß, TNF-α, and NO). SSE showed also in vivo anti-inflammatory actions in the TPA test (40% of inhibition of ear oedema) and the carrageenan test (ED50 = 137.8 mg/kg p.o.). SSE induced antinociceptive activity in the formalin orofacial pain test (ED50 = 80.1 mg/kg) and the acetic acid-induced writhing test (ED50 = 110 mg/kg). SSE showed no antinociceptive actions in the hot plate assay. The pre-treatment with glibenclamide abolished the antinociceptive action shown by SSE alone. Overall, SSE exerted in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory actions, and in vivo antinociceptive effects by the possible involvement of ATP-sensitive K + channels.

The Role of Iron Status in the Early Progression of Metronidazole Resistance in Trichomonas vaginalis Under Microaerophilic Conditions.

Trichomonas vaginalis is the etiological agent of human trichomoniasis. Metronidazole has high treatment success rate among trichomoniasis patients. However, metronidazole-resistant T. vaginalis has been reported, contributing in an increasing number of refractory cases. The mechanism of metronidazole resistance in this parasite is still unclear. In the vaginal environment, where the microaerophilic conditions prevail but the iron concentration is constantly fluctuating, the metronidazole resistance profile of T. vaginalis could be altered. In this study, we developed metronidazole-resistant strains of T. vaginalis and evaluate if iron availability is important to the action of the drug. The modulation of iron levels and iron chelation affected the actions of metronidazole both in susceptible and resistant strains. Interestingly, the early resistant strains exhibited minor iron content. The results of transcription analysis in the early resistant strains showed dysregulation in the expression of genes that codified proteins involved in iron transporter, iron-sulfur cluster assemblage, and oxidative stress response, which could not be observed in the late resistant and susceptible strains. Our results indicate that iron content plays an important role in the metronidazole action in T. vaginalis and likely to be related to iron-sulfur proteins involved in metronidazole activation and oxidative stress via Fenton reaction.

Trichomonicidal activity of a new anthraquinone isolated from the roots of Morinda panamensis Seem.

Trichomoniasis, caused by the protozoan parasite Trichomonas vaginalis, is the most common nonviral sexually transmitted infection worldwide. Although drug treatment is available, unpleasant side effects and increased resistance to the nitroimidazole family have been documented. Hence, there is a need for the identification of new and safe therapeutic agents against T. vaginalis. Antimicrobial activity of anthraquinone compounds has been reported by a number of authors. The genus Morinda is well known for the diversity of anthraquinones with numerous biological activities. A new anthraquinone, lucidin-ω-isopropyl ether, was isolated from the roots of Morinda panamensis Seem. The structure of the compound was determined by 1 H and 13 C Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) analyses, in addition to comparison with literature reports. Using in vitro susceptibility assay, the half inhibitory concentration (IC50 ) of lucidin-ω-isopropyl ether for T. vaginalis (1.32 µg/mL) was found similar to that of metronidazole concentration tested (6 µM = 1.03 µg/mL). In addition, this anthraquinone was capable of inhibiting the parasite's ability to kill HeLa cells and decreased proteolytic activity of the proteinase TvMP50 from T. vaginalis. This was associated with the decreased expression of the mp50 gene. These results demonstrate the trichomonicidal potential by lucidin-ω-isopropyl ether. Further action-mode studies are necessary to elucidate the antiparasitic mechanism of this new anthraquinone to develop a more potent antitrichomonal agent.

Anti-inflammatory and diuretic effects of the diterpene ent-dihydrotucumanoic acid.

Gymnosperma glutinosum (Spreng) Less (Asteraceae) is a shrub used in traditional medicine for the treatment of inflammatory and renal diseases. The ent-dihydrotucumanoic acid (DTA) is a diterpene obtained from G. glutinosum. This study evaluated the antioxidant, genotoxic, and diuretic properties of DTA, as well as its in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory actions. The antioxidant actions of DTA were assessed with the 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays, the genotoxic action was assessed with the comet assay, and the diuretic effects of DTA were assessed using metabolic cages. The anti-inflammatory actions were evaluated using primary murine peritoneal macrophages stimulated with LPS and the λ-carrageenan-induced hind paw edema test. DTA lacked antioxidant (IC50 > 25,000 µg/mL) activity in the ABTS, FRAP, and DPPH assays. DTA at 500-1,000 µg/mL showed moderate genotoxicity. In LPS-stimulated macrophages, DTA showed IC50 values of 74.85 µg/mL (TNF-α) and 58.12 µg/mL (NO), whereas the maximum inhibition of IL-6 (24%) and IL-1ß (36%) was recorded at 200 µg/mL. DTA induced in vivo anti-inflammatory effects with ED50 = 124.3 mg/kg. The in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of DTA seems to be associated with the decrease in the release of TNF-α and NO. DTA promoted the excretion of urine (ED50 = 86.9 mg/kg), Na+ (ED50 = 66.7 mg/kg), and K+ (ED50 = 8.6 mg/kg). The coadministration of DTA with L-NAME decreased the urinary excretion shown by DTA alone. Therefore, the diuretic activity is probably associated with the participation of nitric oxide synthase. In conclusion, DTA exerted anti-inflammatory and diuretic effects, but lacked antioxidant effects.

Immune Response of BALB/c Mice toward Putative Calcium Transporter Recombinant Protein of Trichomonas vaginalis.

Trichomoniasis is a common sexually transmitted infection caused by Trichomonas vaginalis, which actually does not exist a vaccine for control or prevention. Thus, the identification of new and potent immunogens in T. vaginalis, which can contribute to the development of a vaccine against this parasite, is necessary. Therefore, the aim of this work was to evaluate the potential of a recombinant Transient Receptor Potential-like channel of T. vaginalis (TvTRPV), as a promising immunogen in BALB/c mice. First, TvTRPV was cloned and expressed as a recombinant protein in Escherichia coli BL21 cells and purified by nickel affinity. Next, BALB/c mice were immunized and the antibody levels in mice serum and cytokines from the supernatant of macrophages and from co-culture systems were evaluated. Recombinant TvTRPV triggered high levels of specific total IgG in sera from the immunized mice. Also, a statistically significant increase of cytokines: IL-1ß, IL-6, and TNF-α after stimulation with the corresponding antigens in vitro, was identified. Moreover, co-cultures using CD4+ T cells from immunized mice were able to identify higher levels of IL-10 and IFN-γ. These results were useful to validate the immunogenicity of TvTRPV in BALB/c mice, where IL-10-IFN-γ-secreting cells could play a role in infection control, supporting the potential of TvTRPV as a promising target for vaccine against T. vaginalis.

Anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects of tilifodiolide, isolated from Salvia tiliifolia Vahl (Lamiaceae).

Salvia tiliifolia Vahl (Lamiaceae) is used for the empirical treatment of pain and inflammation. The diterpenoid tilifodiolide (TFD) was isolated from Salvia tiliifolia. The in vitro anti-inflammatory effects of TFD (0.1-200 µM) were assessed using murine macrophages stimulated with LPS and estimating the levels of pro-inflammatory mediators for 48 h. The in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of TFD was assessed using the carrageenan-induced paw edema test for 6 h. The antinociceptive effects of TFD were evaluated using the formalin test and the acetic acid induced-writhing test. The effects of TFD on locomotor activity were assessed using the open field test and the rotarod test. TFD inhibited the production of TNF-α (IC50 = 5.66 µM) and IL-6 (IC50 = 1.21 µM) in macrophages. TFD (200 mg/kg) showed anti-inflammatory effects with similar activity compared to 10 mg/kg indomethacin. The administration of TFD induced antinociception in the phase 1 (ED50 = 48.2 mg/kg) and the phase 2 (ED50 = 28.9 mg/kg) of the formalin test. In the acetic acid assay, TFD showed antinociceptive effects (ED50 = 32.3 mg/kg) with similar potency compared to naproxen (ED50 = 36.2 mg/kg). In the presence of different inhibitors in the acetic acid assay, only the co-administration of TFD and naloxone reverted the antinociceptive activity shown by TFD alone. TFD did not affect locomotor activity in mice. TFD exerts in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activity and in vivo antinociceptive effects.

Pharmacological evaluation of 2-angeloyl ent-dihydrotucumanoic acid.

CONTEXT: Gymnosperma glutinosum (Spreng.) Less. (Asteraceae) is a bush used for the empirical treatment of pain, fever, and cancer. An ent-neo-clerodane diterpene (2-angeloyl ent-dihydrotumanoic acid; ADTA) was isolated from G. glutinosum. OBJECTIVE: This study evaluates the cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, and antinociceptive effects of ADTA. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The cytotoxic effects of ADTA (1-350 µM) were evaluated using the MTT assay with human tumorigenic (SW-620, MDA-MB231, SKLU1, SiHa, and PC-3), and non-tumorigenic (HaCaT) cells for 48 h. The in vitro anti-inflammatory effects of ADTA (0.23-460 µM) were assessed using murine peritoneal macrophages stimulated with LPS and estimating the levels of pro-inflammatory mediators for 48 h. The antinociceptive effects of ADTA (25-100 mg/kg p.o.) were evaluated using two in vivo models of chemical-induced nociception during 1 h. RESULTS: ADTA lacked cytotoxic activity (IC50> 100 µM) on tumorigenic cells. In non-tumorigenic cells (HaCaT), ADTA exerted low cytotoxic effects (IC50 = 273 µM). ADTA, at concentrations of 115 µM or higher, decreased the release of pro-inflammatory mediators. The maximum antinociceptive effects of ADTA in the acetic acid-induced abdominal constrictions by ADTA was found at 100 mg/kg (63%), whereas in the formalin test at phase 1 and phase 2, ADTA (100 mg/kg) decreased the licking time by 47 and 71%, respectively. CONCLUSION: The results indicate that ADTA, obtained from G. glutinosum, exerts moderate in vitro anti-inflammatory and in vivo antinociceptive effects, but lacks cytotoxic effects on human cancer cells.

Models in vivo and in vitro for the study of acute and chronic inflammatory activity: A comprehensive review.

Inflammatory conditions are among the principal causes of morbidity worldwide, and their treatment continues to be a challenge, given the restricted availability of effective and safe drugs. Thus, the identification of new compounds with biological activity that can be used for the treatment of inflammatory disorders is an essential field in medical and health research, in order to improve the health and quality of life of patients suffering from these diseases. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory activity of drugs requires the implementation of models that accurately depict the biochemical and/or physiological responses that characterize human inflammation; for this reason, several in vitro and in vivo models have been developed, providing a platform for discovering novel or repurposed compounds. For this reason, in the present review we have selected twelve commonly used models for the evaluation of the anti-inflammatory effect, and extensively describes the difference between in vivo and in vitro models of inflammation, highlighting their advantages and limitations. On the other hand, the inflammatory mechanisms involved in them, the methods employed for their establishment, and the different parameters assessed to determine the anti-inflammatory activity of a given compound are extensively discussed. We expect to provide a comprehensive guide for the improved selection of a suitable model for the preclinical evaluation of plausible anti-inflammatory agents.

Novel copper complexes-polyurethane composites that mimics anti-inflammatory response.

Copper is a trace element of biological significance that can form complexes with several thiol containing compounds which can be used as filler in biomedical polyurethanes. In this work, segmented polyurethanes (SPUs) were synthesized with thiol containing compounds as chain extenders including d-penicillamine (DP), l-penicillamine (LP), l-cysteine (LC) and reduced glutathione (GR). Then, the synthesized polyurethane was filled with copper chelates based on the same chain extenders. Evidence of free thiol containing chain extender in polyurethane was not observed by FTIR and Raman but EDX provided evidence of sulfur in the unfilled polyurethane and copper and sulfur in their composite. DSC and DRX showed the semi-crystalline nature of the polyurethanes which provided good mechanical properties, especially to those prepared with DP. The Tg of the PCL determined by DMA shifted toward higher temperatures by the addition of copper complexes while TGA studies showed that the thermal degradation was slightly improved when LCCu and GRCu complex were added. Macrophage viability was observed in all composition studied after longer times of extraction (72 h) and dilutions (1:2 to 1:32) but remarkably high in those prepared with LCCu and GRCu. The anti-inflammatory response was proved in LC and GR copper complex filled polyurethanes as IL-4 and IL-10 increased with time while IL-1ß and TNF-α were reduced.

Lupeol acetate isolated from Chrysophyllum cainito L. fruit as a template for the synthesis of N-alkyl-arylsulfonamide derivatives and their synergistic effects with metronidazole against Trichomonas vaginalis.

Pentacyclic triterpenes are found in a great variety of natural products and constitute an organic template for the development of new derivative compounds with therapeutic applications. In the present work, lupeol acetate isolated from Chrysophyllum cainito L. fruit was used as a template for the synthesis of novel N-alkyl-arylsulfonamide derivatives, and their synergistic effects with metronidazole against strains of Trichomonas vaginalis were tested. A library of 18 derivatives was synthesized. Ten compounds exhibited an IC50 < 100 µM against a metronidazole-sensitive strain of T. vaginalis. Only seven of these compounds (12, 15, 18-22) also showed activity against metronidazole-resistant strains. The compounds 20 (N-cyclohexyl-p-chlorobenzenesulfonamidolupeol acetate) and 22 (N-cyclohexyl-p-nitrobenzenesulfonamidolupeol acetate) exhibited a similar IC50 against both susceptible and resistant T. vaginalis strains and enhanced the efficacy of metronidazole in a partial and total synergistic way, respectively. These data provided evidence of the trichomonicidal effect of N-alkyl-arylsulfonamide derivatives of lupeol acetate, representing highly promising novel antiparasitic agents.

Natural marine products as antiprotozoal agents against amitochondrial parasites.

The goal of this work is to compile and discuss molecules of marine origin reported in the scientific literature with anti-parasitic activity against Trichomonas, Giardia, and Entamoeba, parasites responsible for diseases that are major global health problems, and Microsporidial parasites as an emerging problem. The presented data correspond to metabolites with anti-parasitic activity in human beings that have been isolated by chromatographic techniques from marine sources and structurally elucidated by spectroscopic and spectrometric procedures. We also highlight some semi-synthetic derivatives that have been successful in enhancing the activity of original compounds. The biological oceanic reservoir offers the possibility to discover new biologically active molecules as lead compounds to develop new drug candidates. The molecular variety is extensive and must be correctly explored and managed. Also, it will be necessary to take some actions to preserve the source species from extinction or overharvest (e.g., by cryopreservation of coral spermatozoa, oocytes, embryos, and larvae) and coordinate appropriate exploitation to increase the chemical knowledge of the natural products generated in the oceans. Additional initiatives such as the total synthesis of complex natural products and their derivatives can help to prevent overharvest of the marine ecosystems and at the same time contribute to the discovery of new molecules.

Vaccine-linked chemotherapy with a low dose of benznidazole plus a bivalent recombinant protein vaccine prevents the development of cardiac fibrosis caused by Trypanosoma cruzi in chronically-infected BALB/c mice.

BACKGROUND: Chagas disease (CD) is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and affects 6-7 million people worldwide. Approximately 30% of chronic patients develop chronic chagasic cardiomyopathy (CCC) after decades. Benznidazole (BNZ), one of the first-line chemotherapy used for CD, induces toxicity and fails to halt the progression of CCC in chronic patients. The recombinant parasite-derived antigens, including Tc24, Tc24-C4, TSA-1, and TSA-1-C4 with Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4) agonist-adjuvants reduce cardiac parasite burdens, heart inflammation, and fibrosis, leading us to envision their use as immunotherapy together with BNZ. Given genetic immunization (DNA vaccines) encoding Tc24 and TSA-1 induce protective immunity in mice and dogs, we propose that immunization with the corresponding recombinant proteins offers an alternative and feasible strategy to develop these antigens as a bivalent human vaccine. We hypothesized that a low dose of BNZ in combination with a therapeutic vaccine (TSA-1-C4 and Tc24-C4 antigens formulated with a synthetic TLR-4 agonist-adjuvant, E6020-SE) given during early chronic infection, could prevent cardiac disease progression and provide antigen-specific T cell immunity. METHODOLOGY/ PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We evaluated the therapeutic vaccine candidate plus BNZ (25 mg/kg/day/7 days) given on days 72 and 79 post-infection (p.i) (early chronic phase). Fibrosis, inflammation, and parasite burden were quantified in heart tissue at day 200 p.i. (late chronic phase). Further, spleen cells were collected to evaluate antigen-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell immune response, using flow cytometry. We found that vaccine-linked BNZ treated mice had lower cardiac fibrosis compared to the infected untreated control group. Moreover, cells from mice that received the immunotherapy had higher stimulation index of antigen-specific CD8+Perforin+ T cells as well as antigen-specific central memory T cells compared to the infected untreated control. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that the bivalent immunotherapy together with BNZ treatment given during early chronic infection protects BALB/c mice against cardiac fibrosis progression and activates a strong CD8+ T cell response by in vitro restimulation, evidencing the induction of a long-lasting T. cruzi-immunity.