SARS-CoV-2 Omicron-B.1.1.529 leads to widespread escape from neutralizing antibody responses.

On 24th November 2021, the sequence of a new SARS-CoV-2 viral isolate Omicron-B.1.1.529 was announced, containing far more mutations in Spike (S) than previously reported variants. Neutralization titers of Omicron by sera from vaccinees and convalescent subjects infected with early pandemic Alpha, Beta, Gamma, or Delta are substantially reduced, or the sera failed to neutralize. Titers against Omicron are boosted by third vaccine doses and are high in both vaccinated individuals and those infected by Delta. Mutations in Omicron knock out or substantially reduce neutralization by most of the large panel of potent monoclonal antibodies and antibodies under commercial development. Omicron S has structural changes from earlier viruses and uses mutations that confer tight binding to ACE2 to unleash evolution driven by immune escape. This leads to a large number of mutations in the ACE2 binding site and rebalances receptor affinity to that of earlier pandemic viruses.

The interaction of inflammasomes and gut microbiota: novel therapeutic insights.

Inflammasomes are complex platforms for the cleavage and release of inactivated IL-1ß and IL-18 cytokines that trigger inflammatory responses against damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) or pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Gut microbiota plays a pivotal role in maintaining gut homeostasis. Inflammasome activation needs to be tightly regulated to limit aberrant activation and bystander damage to the host cells. Several types of inflammasomes, including Node-like receptor protein family (e.g., NLRP1, NLRP3, NLRP6, NLRP12, NLRC4), PYHIN family, and pyrin inflammasomes, interact with gut microbiota to maintain gut homeostasis. This review discusses the current understanding of how inflammasomes and microbiota interact, and how this interaction impacts human health. Additionally, we introduce novel biologics and antagonists, such as inhibitors of IL-1ß and inflammasomes, as therapeutic strategies for treating gastrointestinal disorders when inflammasomes are dysregulated or the composition of gut microbiota changes.

COVID-19 therapeutics: stewardship in England and considerations for antimicrobial resistance.

The COVID-19 pandemic saw unprecedented resources and funds driven into research for the development, and subsequent rapid distribution, of vaccines, diagnostics and directly acting antivirals (DAAs). DAAs have undeniably prevented progression and life-threatening conditions in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. However, there are concerns of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), antiviral resistance specifically, for DAAs. To preserve activity of DAAs for COVID-19 therapy, as well as detect possible mutations conferring resistance, antimicrobial stewardship and surveillance were rapidly implemented in England. This paper expands on the ubiquitous ongoing public health activities carried out in England, including epidemiologic, virologic and genomic surveillance, to support the stewardship of DAAs and assess the deployment, safety, effectiveness and resistance potential of these novel and repurposed therapeutics.

Serum IL-33 Is Elevated in Children with Asthma and Is Associated with Disease Severity.

BACKGROUND: The role of IL-33, a member of the IL-1 family, in airway hyperresponsiveness and asthma has still to be fully understood. OBJECTIVES: This study is aimed at investigating serum IL-33 in children with asthma and its association with asthma severity. METHODS: This age- and sex-matched case-control study comprised 61 children with asthma and 63 healthy controls. The mean age of the participants was 9.21 years (range: 6-14). Serum IL-33 was measured using ELISA and was compared between children with asthma and controls. In addition, the association of serum IL-33 with asthma severity was investigated. RESULTS: The level of serum IL-33 was significantly higher in children with asthma than in controls (15.17 ± 32.3 vs. 0.61 ± 2.16 pg/ml; p = 0.028). It was significantly increased proportionately to asthma severity, namely 9.92 ± 30.26 pg/ml in children with mild asthma, 13.68 ± 29.27 pg/ml in children with moderate asthma and 31.92 ± 41.45 pg/ml in children with severe asthma (p = 0.026). CONCLUSION: Serum IL-33 is increased in children with asthma and is associated with disease severity.

Structure of a VP1-VP3 complex suggests how birnaviruses package the VP1 polymerase.

Infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV), a member of the family Birnaviridae, infects young salmon, with a severe impact on the commercial sea farming industry. Of the five mature proteins encoded by the IPNV genome, the multifunctional VP3 has an essential role in morphogenesis; interacting with the capsid protein VP2, the viral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) genome and the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase VP1. Here we investigate one of these VP3 functions and present the crystal structure of the C-terminal 12 residues of VP3 bound to the VP1 polymerase. This interaction, visualized for the first time, reveals the precise molecular determinants used by VP3 to bind the polymerase. Competition binding studies confirm that this region of VP3 is necessary and sufficient for VP1 binding, while biochemical experiments show that VP3 attachment has no effect on polymerase activity. These results indicate how VP3 recruits the polymerase into birnavirus capsids during morphogenesis.

Anterior and posterior corneal curvature: normal values in healthy Iranian population obtained with the Orbscan II.

The objective of study was to determine the normative values of anterior and posterior best fit sphere (A-BFS and P-BFS) measured with Orbscan II Topography System. In this cross-sectional study, patients (age range: 18-40 years) referred to the Khatam Eye Hospital (Mashhad, Iran) were put in an observational cross-sectional study. The A-BFS and P-BFS were measured with the Orbscan II. The differences between genders, between right and left eyes, and age-related changes were evaluated. A total of 977 healthy participants consisted of 614 female and 363 male subjects aged 18-35 years participated. The average A-BFS in our study population was recorded as 43.060 ± 1.541 D (median: 43.00 D, mode: 43.10 D, range: 38.80-55.80 D). The average P-BFS in our study population was recorded as 52.702 ± 2.190 D (median: 52.60 D, mode: 53.10 D range: 46.9-62.20 D). The A-BFS and P-BFS were respectively 42.753 ± 1.629 and 52.327 ± 2.376 D in males and 43.242 ± 1.457 and 52.924 ± 2.041 D in females, which were statistically different between the genders (P < 0.001). However, A-BFS and P-BFS were not statistically different between right and left eyes (P = 0.649 and P = 0.688 respectively). In addition, A-BFS and P-BFS were not correlated with the age (r = 0.038, P = 0.096 and r = -0.142, P = 0.178 respectively). Considering 95 % confidence interval, A-BFS less than 43.13 D and greater than 42.99 D and P-BFS less than 52.80 D and greater than 52.60 D would be considered abnormal. Detailed description and analysis of A-BFS and P-BFS with Orbscan demonstrated that the obtained average value of BFS were higher in male than female and did not change with increasing age.

The N-terminus of the RNA polymerase from infectious pancreatic necrosis virus is the determinant of genome attachment.

The RNA-dependent RNA polymerase VP1 of infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) is a single polypeptide responsible for both viral RNA transcription and genome replication. Sequence analysis identifies IPNV VP1 as having an unusual active site topology. We have purified, crystallized and solved the structure of IPNV VP1 to 2.3 Å resolution in its apo form and at 2.2 Å resolution bound to the catalytically-activating metal magnesium. We find that recombinantly-expressed VP1 is highly active for RNA transcription and replication, yielding both free and polymerase-attached RNA products. IPNV VP1 also possesses terminal (deoxy)nucleotide transferase, RNA-dependent DNA polymerase (reverse transcriptase) and template-independent self-guanylylation activity. The N-terminus of VP1 interacts with the active-site cleft and we show that the N-terminal serine residue is required for formation of covalent RNA:polymerase complexes, providing a mechanism for the genesis of viral genome:polymerase complexes observed in vivo.

Inhibition of apoptosis and NF-κB activation by vaccinia protein N1 occur via distinct binding surfaces and make different contributions to virulence.

Vaccinia virus (VACV) protein N1 is an intracellular virulence factor and belongs to a family of VACV B-cell lymphoma (Bcl)-2-like proteins whose members inhibit apoptosis or activation of pro-inflammatory transcription factors, such as interferon (IFN) regulatory factor-3 (IRF-3) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). Unusually, N1 inhibits both apoptosis and NF-κB activation. To understand how N1 exerts these different functions, we have mutated residues in the Bcl-2-like surface groove and at the interface used to form N1 homodimers. Mutagenesis of the surface groove abolished only the N1 anti-apoptotic activity and protein crystallography showed these mutants differed from wild-type N1 only at the site of mutation. Conversely, mutagenesis of the dimer interface converted N1 to a monomer and affected only inhibition of NF-κB activation. Collectively, these data show that N1 inhibits pro-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic signalling using independent surfaces of the protein. To determine the relative contribution of each activity to virus virulence, mutant N1 alleles were introduced into a VACV strain lacking N1 and the virulence of these viruses was analysed after intradermal and intranasal inoculation in mice. In both models, VACV containing a mutant N1 unable to inhibit apoptosis had similar virulence to wild-type virus, whereas VACV containing a mutant N1 impaired for NF-κB inhibition induced an attenuated infection similar to that of the N1-deleted virus. This indicates that anti-apoptotic activity of N1 does not drive virulence in these in vivo models, and highlights the importance of pro-inflammatory signalling in the immune response against viral infections.

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography utilisation and outcomes in the first advanced endoscopy centre in Palestine at Al-Ahli Hospital: a retrospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the utilisation and outcomes of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) procedures, success rates, incidence and risk factors for procedural-related complications in a single centre-based study. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: First advanced tertiary endoscopy centre in Palestine. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 1909 procedures on 1303 patients were included in the analysis: females were 57.9% of the cases (n=755), 1225 patients (94%) were from West Bank and Jerusalem and 78 (6%) were from Gaza Strip. All patients who underwent ERCP throughout the period from December 2017 to September 2022 were selected to participate in the study. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcomes of interest in our analysis were success rates, procedural outcomes and post- procedural complications including pancreatitis, bleeding and others. Two multivariate logistic regression models were performed to calculate the risk of post-ERCP complications and post-ERCP pancreatitis (PEP) in patients with certain risk factors like demographic factors, procedural techniques' variation, pancreatic duct manipulations and others. We also discussed the management of the failed procedures. RESULTS: The overall complication rate was 5%, including PEP (n=43, 2.3%), infection/cholangitis (n=20, 1%), bleeding (n=9, 0.5%) and perforation (n=7, 0.4%). The mortality rate was 0.6% (n=11). Risk factors for adverse events included pancreatic duct cannulation and PEP (p<0.001, OR=3.64). Additionally, younger patients (≤45) were found to carry a higher risk for PEP when compared with older patients (≥65) (p=0.023, OR=2.84). In comparison with sphincterotomy, the double-wire technique was associated with a higher risk of complications (p=0.033, OR=2.29). CONCLUSIONS: We summarised the utilisation and outcomes of ERCP among the Palestinian population in the first advanced centre in Palestine. Cannulation success rates are similar to the established standards and are acceptable compared with other centres worldwide. Perioperative complication rates of ERCP remain infrequent, and death is quite unusual and thus considered a safe procedure.

Generation of SARS-CoV-2 escape mutations by monoclonal antibody therapy.

COVID-19 patients at risk of severe disease may be treated with neutralising monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). To minimise virus escape from neutralisation these are administered as combinations e.g. casirivimab+imdevimab or, for antibodies targeting relatively conserved regions, individually e.g. sotrovimab. Unprecedented genomic surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 in the UK has enabled a genome-first approach to detect emerging drug resistance in Delta and Omicron cases treated with casirivimab+imdevimab and sotrovimab respectively. Mutations occur within the antibody epitopes and for casirivimab+imdevimab multiple mutations are present on contiguous raw reads, simultaneously affecting both components. Using surface plasmon resonance and pseudoviral neutralisation assays we demonstrate these mutations reduce or completely abrogate antibody affinity and neutralising activity, suggesting they are driven by immune evasion. In addition, we show that some mutations also reduce the neutralising activity of vaccine-induced serum.

Neuroinflammation, autoinflammation, splenomegaly and anemia caused by bi-allelic mutations in IRAK4.

We describe a novel, severe autoinflammatory syndrome characterized by neuroinflammation, systemic autoinflammation, splenomegaly, and anemia (NASA) caused by bi-allelic mutations in IRAK4. IRAK-4 is a serine/threonine kinase with a pivotal role in innate immune signaling from toll-like receptors and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In humans, bi-allelic mutations in IRAK4 result in IRAK-4 deficiency and increased susceptibility to pyogenic bacterial infections, but autoinflammation has never been described. We describe 5 affected patients from 2 unrelated families with compound heterozygous mutations in IRAK4 (c.C877T (p.Q293*)/c.G958T (p.D320Y); and c.A86C (p.Q29P)/c.161 + 1G>A) resulting in severe systemic autoinflammation, massive splenomegaly and severe transfusion dependent anemia and, in 3/5 cases, severe neuroinflammation and seizures. IRAK-4 protein expression was reduced in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) in affected patients. Immunological analysis demonstrated elevated serum tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin (IL) 1 beta (IL-1ß), IL-6, IL-8, interferon α2a (IFN-α2a), and interferon ß (IFN-ß); and elevated cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) IL-6 without elevation of CSF IFN-α despite perturbed interferon gene signature. Mutations were located within the death domain (DD; p.Q29P and splice site mutation c.161 + 1G>A) and kinase domain (p.Q293*/p.D320Y) of IRAK-4. Structure-based modeling of the DD mutation p.Q29P showed alteration in the alignment of a loop within the DD with loss of contact distance and hydrogen bond interactions with IRAK-1/2 within the myddosome complex. The kinase domain mutation p.D320Y was predicted to stabilize interactions within the kinase active site. While precise mechanisms of autoinflammation in NASA remain uncertain, we speculate that loss of negative regulation of IRAK-4 and IRAK-1; dysregulation of myddosome assembly and disassembly; or kinase active site instability may drive dysregulated IL-6 and TNF production. Blockade of IL-6 resulted in immediate and complete amelioration of systemic autoinflammation and anemia in all 5 patients treated; however, neuroinflammation has, so far proven recalcitrant to IL-6 blockade and the janus kinase (JAK) inhibitor baricitinib, likely due to lack of central nervous system penetration of both drugs. We therefore highlight that bi-allelic mutation in IRAK4 may be associated with a severe and complex autoinflammatory and neuroinflammatory phenotype that we have called NASA (neuroinflammation, autoinflammation, splenomegaly and anemia), in addition to immunodeficiency in humans.

Mapping the IkappaB kinase beta (IKKbeta)-binding interface of the B14 protein, a vaccinia virus inhibitor of IKKbeta-mediated activation of nuclear factor kappaB.

The IκB kinase (IKK) complex regulates activation of NF-κB, a critical transcription factor in mediating inflammatory and immune responses. Not surprisingly, therefore, many viruses seek to inhibit NF-κB activation. The vaccinia virus B14 protein contributes to virus virulence by binding to the IKKß subunit of the IKK complex and preventing NF-κB activation in response to pro-inflammatory stimuli. Previous crystallographic studies showed that the B14 protein has a Bcl-2-like fold and forms homodimers in the crystal. However, multi-angle light scattering indicated that B14 is in monomer-dimer equilibrium in solution. This transient self-association suggested that the hydrophobic dimerization interface of B14 might also mediate its interaction with IKKß, and this was investigated by introducing amino acid substitutions on the dimer interface. One mutant (Y35E) was entirely monomeric but still co-immunoprecipitated with IKKß and blocked both NF-κB nuclear translocation and NF-κB-dependent gene expression. Therefore, B14 homodimerization is nonessential for binding and inhibition of IKKß. In contrast, a second monomeric mutant (F130K) neither bound IKKß nor inhibited NF-κB-dependent gene expression, demonstrating that this residue is required for the B14-IKKß interaction. Thus, the dimerization and IKKß-binding interfaces overlap and lie on a surface used for protein-protein interactions in many viral and cellular Bcl-2-like proteins.

Assessment of Human Leukocyte Antigen Differences between Smokers with Reinke's Edema and Those with Laryngeal Cancer.

Introduction: The present study aimed to assess human leukocyte antigen (HLA) typing differences between smokers with Reinke's edema and those with laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). Materials and Methods: The HLA class I, II alleles were examined in 76 unrelated Iranian patients using low-resolution polymerase chain reaction with the sequence-specific primer (PCR-SSP) method. Results: The frequency of the HLA-A*36 allele and HLA-B*35 was significantly higher in patients with SCC. The frequency of HLA-DRB1*01 alleles in Reinke's edema was significantly higher, as compared to that in others. In the volunteer group, HLA-DRB1*13 and HLA-DRB1*15 were significantly higher. Conclusions: As evidenced by the obtained results, HLA-A*36 was significantly higher in SCC, as compared to that in volunteers and Reinke's edema patients. It can be concluded that being positive for HLA-A*36 increases the chance of SCC by three times. This result should be further investigated in cohort studies conducted on larger samples. Furthermore, HLA-A*24 was significantly higher in the volunteer group, as compared to that in other groups. The HLADRB1*01 was remarkably higher in Reinke's edema, as compared to that in SCC.

A conserved glutathione binding site in poliovirus is a target for antivirals and vaccine stabilisation.

Strategies to prevent the recurrence of poliovirus (PV) after eradication may utilise non-infectious, recombinant virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines. Despite clear advantages over inactivated or attenuated virus vaccines, instability of VLPs can compromise their immunogenicity. Glutathione (GSH), an important cellular reducing agent, is a crucial co-factor for the morphogenesis of enteroviruses, including PV. We report cryo-EM structures of GSH bound to PV serotype 3 VLPs showing that it can enhance particle stability. GSH binds the positively charged pocket at the interprotomer interface shown recently to bind GSH in enterovirus F3 and putative antiviral benzene sulphonamide compounds in other enteroviruses. We show, using high-resolution cryo-EM, the binding of a benzene sulphonamide compound with a PV serotype 2 VLP, consistent with antiviral activity through over-stabilizing the interprotomer pocket, preventing the capsid rearrangements necessary for viral infection. Collectively, these results suggest GSH or an analogous tight-binding antiviral offers the potential for stabilizing VLP vaccines.

Production and Characterisation of Stabilised PV-3 Virus-like Particles Using Pichia pastoris.

Following the success of global vaccination programmes using the live-attenuated oral and inactivated poliovirus vaccines (OPV and IPV), wild poliovirus (PV) is now only endemic in Afghanistan and Pakistan. However, the continued use of these vaccines poses potential risks to the eradication of PV. The production of recombinant PV virus-like particles (VLPs), which lack the viral genome offer great potential as next-generation vaccines for the post-polio world. We have previously reported production of PV VLPs using Pichia pastoris, however, these VLPs were in the non-native conformation (C Ag), which would not produce effective protection against PV. Here, we build on this work and show that it is possible to produce wt PV-3 and thermally stabilised PV-3 (referred to as PV-3 SC8) VLPs in the native conformation (D Ag) using Pichia pastoris. We show that the PV-3 SC8 VLPs provide a much-improved D:C antigen ratio as compared to wt PV-3, whilst exhibiting greater thermostability than the current IPV vaccine. Finally, we determine the cryo-EM structure of the yeast-derived PV-3 SC8 VLPs and compare this to previously published PV-3 D Ag structures, highlighting the similarities between these recombinantly expressed VLPs and the infectious virus, further emphasising their potential as a next-generation vaccine candidate for PV.

How vaccinia virus has evolved to subvert the host immune response.

Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites and are some of the most rapidly evolving and diverse pathogens encountered by the host immune system. Large complicated viruses, such as poxviruses, have evolved a plethora of proteins to disrupt host immune signalling in their battle against immune surveillance. Recent X-ray crystallographic analysis of these viral immunomodulators has helped form an emerging picture of the molecular details of virus-host interactions. In this review we consider some of these immune evasion strategies as they apply to poxviruses, from a structural perspective, with specific examples from the European SPINE2-Complexes initiative. Structures of poxvirus immunomodulators reveal the capacity of viruses to mimic and compete against the host immune system, using a diverse range of structural folds that are unique or acquired from their hosts with both enhanced and unexpectedly divergent functions.

Mammalian expression of virus-like particles as a proof of principle for next generation polio vaccines.

Global vaccination programs using live-attenuated oral and inactivated polio vaccine (OPV and IPV) have almost eradicated poliovirus (PV) but these vaccines or their production pose significant risk in a polio-free world. Recombinant PV virus-like particles (VLPs), lacking the viral genome, represent safe next-generation vaccines, however their production requires optimisation. Here we present an efficient mammalian expression strategy producing good yields of wild-type PV VLPs for all three serotypes and a thermostabilised variant for PV3. Whilst the wild-type VLPs were predominantly in the non-native C-antigenic form, the thermostabilised PV3 VLPs adopted the native D-antigenic conformation eliciting neutralising antibody titres equivalent to the current IPV and were indistinguishable from natural empty particles by cryo-electron microscopy with a similar stabilising lipidic pocket-factor in the VP1 ß-barrel. This factor may not be available in alternative expression systems, which may require synthetic pocket-binding factors. VLPs equivalent to these mammalian expressed thermostabilized particles, represent safer non-infectious vaccine candidates for the post-eradication era.

Omicron-B.1.1.529 leads to widespread escape from neutralizing antibody responses.

On the 24 th November 2021 the sequence of a new SARS CoV-2 viral isolate spreading rapidly in Southern Africa was announced, containing far more mutations in Spike (S) than previously reported variants. Neutralization titres of Omicron by sera from vaccinees and convalescent subjects infected with early pandemic as well as Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta are substantially reduced or fail to neutralize. Titres against Omicron are boosted by third vaccine doses and are high in cases both vaccinated and infected by Delta. Mutations in Omicron knock out or substantially reduce neutralization by most of a large panel of potent monoclonal antibodies and antibodies under commercial development. Omicron S has structural changes from earlier viruses, combining mutations conferring tight binding to ACE2 to unleash evolution driven by immune escape, leading to a large number of mutations in the ACE2 binding site which rebalance receptor affinity to that of early pandemic viruses.

Structure and function of A41, a vaccinia virus chemokine binding protein.

The vaccinia virus (VACV) A41L gene encodes a secreted 30 kDa glycoprotein that is nonessential for virus replication but affects the host response to infection. The A41 protein shares sequence similarity with another VACV protein that binds CC chemokines (called vCKBP, or viral CC chemokine inhibitor, vCCI), and strains of VACV lacking the A41L gene induced stronger CD8+ T-cell responses than control viruses expressing A41. Using surface plasmon resonance, we screened 39 human and murine chemokines and identified CCL21, CCL25, CCL26 and CCL28 as A41 ligands, with Kds of between 8 nM and 118 nM. Nonetheless, A41 was ineffective at inhibiting chemotaxis induced by these chemokines, indicating it did not block the interaction of these chemokines with their receptors. However the interaction of A41 and chemokines was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by heparin, suggesting that A41 and heparin bind to overlapping sites on these chemokines. To better understand the mechanism of action of A41 its crystal structure was solved to 1.9 A resolution. The protein has a globular beta sandwich structure similar to that of the poxvirus vCCI family of proteins, but there are notable structural differences, particularly in surface loops and electrostatic charge distribution. Structural modelling suggests that the binding paradigm as defined for the vCCI-chemokine interaction is likely to be conserved between A41 and its chemokine partners. Additionally, sequence analysis of chemokines binding to A41 identified a signature for A41 binding. The biological and structural data suggest that A41 functions by forming moderately strong (nM) interactions with certain chemokines, sufficient to interfere with chemokine-glycosaminoglycan interactions at the cell surface (microM-nM) and thereby to destroy the chemokine concentration gradient, but not strong enough to disrupt the (pM) chemokine-chemokine receptor interactions.

Vaccinia virus proteins A52 and B14 Share a Bcl-2-like fold but have evolved to inhibit NF-kappaB rather than apoptosis.

Vaccinia virus (VACV), the prototype poxvirus, encodes numerous proteins that modulate the host response to infection. Two such proteins, B14 and A52, act inside infected cells to inhibit activation of NF-kappaB, thereby blocking the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. We have solved the crystal structures of A52 and B14 at 1.9 A and 2.7 A resolution, respectively. Strikingly, both these proteins adopt a Bcl-2-like fold despite sharing no significant sequence similarity with other viral or cellular Bcl-2-like proteins. Unlike cellular and viral Bcl-2-like proteins described previously, A52 and B14 lack a surface groove for binding BH3 peptides from pro-apoptotic Bcl-2-like proteins and they do not modulate apoptosis. Structure-based phylogenetic analysis of 32 cellular and viral Bcl-2-like protein structures reveals that A52 and B14 are more closely related to each other and to VACV N1 and myxoma virus M11 than they are to other viral or cellular Bcl-2-like proteins. This suggests that a progenitor poxvirus acquired a gene encoding a Bcl-2-like protein and, over the course of evolution, gene duplication events have allowed the virus to exploit this Bcl-2 scaffold for interfering with distinct host signalling pathways.