Brief Dark Exposure Reduces Tonic Inhibition in Visual Cortex.

Tonic inhibition mediated by extrasynaptic GABA(A) receptors (GABARs) sensing ambient levels of GABA can profoundly alter the membrane input resistance to affect cellular excitability. Therefore, regulation of tonic inhibition is an attractive mechanism to control the levels of cortical firing. In cortical pyramidal cells, tonic inhibition is regulated by age and several neurotransmitters and is affected by stroke and epilepsy. However, the possible role of sensory experience has not been examined. Here, we report that a brief 2-day exposure to dark reduces by 1/3 the inhibitory tonic conductance recorded in layer II/III pyramidal cells of the mouse juvenile (postnatal day 12-27) visual cortex. In these cells, tonic inhibition is carried primarily by GABARs containing the δ subunit. Consistently, the dark exposure reduction in conductance was associated with a reduction in δ subunit levels, which were not affected in control frontal cortex. We propose that a deprivation-induced reduction in tonic inhibition might serve a homeostatic function by increasing the firing levels of cells in deprived cortical circuits.

TATA binding proteins can recognize nontraditional DNA sequences.

We demonstrate an accurate, quantitative, and label-free optical technology for high-throughput studies of receptor-ligand interactions, and apply it to TATA binding protein (TBP) interactions with oligonucleotides. We present a simple method to prepare single-stranded and double-stranded DNA microarrays with comparable surface density, ensuring an accurate comparison of TBP activity with both types of DNA. In particular, we find that TBP binds tightly to single-stranded DNA, especially to stretches of polythymine (poly-T), as well as to the traditional TATA box. We further investigate the correlation of TBP activity with various lengths of DNA and find that the number of TBPs bound to DNA increases >7-fold as the oligomer length increases from 9 to 40. Finally, we perform a full human genome analysis and discover that 35.5% of human promoters have poly-T stretches. In summary, we report, for the first time to our knowledge, the activity of TBP with poly-T stretches by presenting an elegant stepwise analysis of multiple techniques: discovery by a novel quantitative detection of microarrays, confirmation by a traditional gel electrophoresis, and a full genome prediction with computational analyses.

Enhancing GABA(A) receptor alpha 1 subunit levels in hippocampal dentate gyrus inhibits epilepsy development in an animal model of temporal lobe epilepsy.

Differential expression of GABA(A) receptor (GABR) subunits has been demonstrated in hippocampus from patients and animals with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), but whether these changes are important for epileptogenesis remains unknown. Previous studies in the adult rat pilocarpine model of TLE found reduced expression of GABR alpha1 subunits and increased expression of alpha4 subunits in dentate gyrus (DG) of epileptic rats compared with controls. To investigate whether this altered subunit expression is a critical determinant of spontaneous seizure development, we used adeno-associated virus type 2 containing the alpha4 subunit gene (GABRA4) promoter to drive transgene expression in DG after status epilepticus (SE). This novel use of a condition-dependent promoter upregulated after SE successfully increased expression of GABR alpha1 subunit mRNA and protein in DG at 1-2 weeks after SE. Enhanced alpha1 expression in DG resulted in a threefold increase in mean seizure-free time after SE and a 60% decrease in the number of rats developing epilepsy (recurrent spontaneous seizures) in the first 4 weeks after SE. These findings provide the first direct evidence that altering GABR subunit expression can affect the development of epilepsy and suggest that alpha1 subunit levels are important determinants of inhibitory function in hippocampus.

cAMP response element-binding protein, activating transcription factor-4, and upstream stimulatory factor differentially control hippocampal GABABR1a and GABABR1b subunit gene expression through alternative promoters.

Expression of metabotropic GABA(B) receptors is essential for slow inhibitory synaptic transmission in the CNS, and disruption of GABA(B) receptor-mediated responses has been associated with several disorders, including neuropathic pain and epilepsy. The location of GABA(B) receptors in neurons determines their specific role in synaptic transmission, and it is believed that sorting of subunit isoforms, GABA(B)R1a and GABA(B)R1b, to presynaptic or postsynaptic membranes helps to determine this role. GABA(B)R1a and GABA(B)R1b are thought to arise by alternative splicing of heteronuclear RNA. We now demonstrate that alternative promoters, rather than alternative splicing, produce GABA(B)R1a and GABA(B)R1b isoforms. Our data further show that subunit gene expression in hippocampal neurons is mediated by the cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) by binding to unique cAMP response elements in the alternative promoter regions. Double-stranded oligonucleotide decoys selectively alter levels of endogenous GABA(B)R1a and GABA(B)R1b in primary hippocampal neurons, and CREB knock-out mice show changes in levels of GABA(B)R1a and GABA(B)R1b transcripts, consistent with decoy competition experiments. These results demonstrate a critical role of CREB in transcriptional mechanisms that control GABA(B)R1 subunit levels in vivo. In addition, the CREB-related factor activating transcription factor-4 (ATF4) has been shown to interact directly with GABA(B)R1 in neurons, and we show that ATF4 differentially regulates GABA(B)R1a and GABA(B)R1b promoter activity. These results, together with our finding that the depolarization-sensitive upstream stimulatory factor (USF) binds to a composite CREB/ATF4/USF regulatory element only in the absence of CREB binding, indicate that selective control of alternative GABA(B)R1 promoters by CREB, ATF4, and USF may dynamically regulate expression of their gene products in the nervous system.

Polycomblike protein PHF1b: a transcriptional sensor for GABA receptor activity.

BACKGROUND: The γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) type A receptor (GABA(A)R) contains the recognition sites for a variety of agents used in the treatment of brain disorders, including anxiety and epilepsy. A better understanding of how receptor expression is regulated in individual neurons may provide novel opportunities for therapeutic intervention. Towards this goal we have studied transcription of a GABA(A)R subunit gene (GABRB1) whose activity is autologously regulated by GABA via a 10 base pair initiator-like element (ß(1)-INR). METHODS: By screening a human cDNA brain library with a yeast one-hybrid assay, the Polycomblike (PCL) gene product PHD finger protein transcript b (PHF1b) was identified as a ß(1)-INR associated protein. Promoter/reporter assays in primary rat cortical cells demonstrate that PHF1b is an activator at GABRB1, and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays reveal that presence of PHF1 at endogenous Gabrb1 is regulated by GABA(A)R activation. RESULTS: PCL is a member of the Polycomb group required for correct spatial expression of homeotic genes in Drosophila. We now show that PHF1b recognition of ß(1)-INR is dependent on a plant homeodomain, an adjacent helix-loop-helix, and short glycine rich motif. In neurons, it co-immunoprecipitates with SUZ12, a key component of the Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) that regulates a number of important cellular processes, including gene silencing via histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3). CONCLUSIONS: The observation that chronic exposure to GABA reduces PHF1 binding and H3K27 monomethylation, which is associated with transcriptional activation, strongly suggests that PHF1b may be a molecular transducer of GABA(A)R function and thus GABA-mediated neurotransmission in the central nervous system.