RESUMEN
Epstein-Barr virus-induced gene 2 (EBI2, also known as GPR183) is a G-protein-coupled receptor that is required for humoral immune responses; polymorphisms in the receptor have been associated with inflammatory autoimmune diseases. The natural ligand for EBI2 has been unknown. Here we describe the identification of 7α,25-dihydroxycholesterol (also called 7α,25-OHC or 5-cholesten-3ß,7α,25-triol) as a potent and selective agonist of EBI2. Functional activation of human EBI2 by 7α,25-OHC and closely related oxysterols was verified by monitoring second messenger readouts and saturable, high-affinity radioligand binding. Furthermore, we find that 7α,25-OHC and closely related oxysterols act as chemoattractants for immune cells expressing EBI2 by directing cell migration in vitro and in vivo. A critical enzyme required for the generation of 7α,25-OHC is cholesterol 25-hydroxylase (CH25H). Similar to EBI2 receptor knockout mice, mice deficient in CH25H fail to position activated B cells within the spleen to the outer follicle and mount a reduced plasma cell response after an immune challenge. This demonstrates that CH25H generates EBI2 biological activity in vivo and indicates that the EBI2-oxysterol signalling pathway has an important role in the adaptive immune response.
Asunto(s)
Hidroxicolesteroles/farmacología , Receptores de Superficie Celular/inmunología , Animales , Formación de Anticuerpos/inmunología , Linfocitos B , Línea Celular , Movimiento Celular/efectos de los fármacos , Perfilación de la Expresión Génica , Regulación de la Expresión Génica/efectos de los fármacos , Regulación de la Expresión Génica/inmunología , Humanos , Hidroxicolesteroles/química , Hígado/química , Ratones , Ratones Noqueados , Receptores Acoplados a Proteínas G , Ovinos , Linfocitos T/inmunologíaRESUMEN
The G protein-coupled receptor GPR4 is activated by acidic pH and recent evidence indicates that it is expressed in endothelial cells. In agreement with these reports, we observe a high correlation of GPR4 mRNA expression with endothelial marker genes, and we confirm expression and acidic pH dependent function of GPR4 in primary human vascular endothelial cells. GPR4-deficient mice were generated; these are viable and fertile and show no gross abnormalities. However, these animals show a significantly reduced angiogenic response to VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor), but not to bFGF (basic fibroblast growth factor), in a growth factor implant model. Accordingly, in two different orthotopic models, tumor growth is strongly reduced in mice lacking GPR4. Histological analysis of tumors indicates reduced tumor cell proliferation as well as altered vessel morphology, length and density. Moreover, GPR4 deficiency results in reduced VEGFR2 (VEGF Receptor 2) levels in endothelial cells, accounting, at least in part, for the observed phenotype. Our data suggest that endothelial cells sense local tissue acidosis via GPR4 and that this signal is required to generate a full angiogenic response to VEGF.
Asunto(s)
Células Endoteliales/metabolismo , Neoplasias/fisiopatología , Neovascularización Patológica/metabolismo , Receptores Acoplados a Proteínas G/deficiencia , Receptores Acoplados a Proteínas G/metabolismo , Animales , Western Blotting , Proliferación Celular , Biología Computacional , Cartilla de ADN/genética , Electroforesis en Gel de Poliacrilamida , Ensayo de Inmunoadsorción Enzimática , Femenino , Factor 2 de Crecimiento de Fibroblastos/metabolismo , Citometría de Flujo , Técnica del Anticuerpo Fluorescente , Células HeLa , Humanos , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos BALB C , Ratones Noqueados , Neoplasias/metabolismo , ARN Interferente Pequeño/genética , Receptores Acoplados a Proteínas G/genética , Reacción en Cadena de la Polimerasa de Transcriptasa Inversa , Factor A de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/metabolismo , Receptor 2 de Factores de Crecimiento Endotelial Vascular/metabolismoRESUMEN
In Germany humans with acute granulocytic ehrlichiosis have not yet been described. Here, we characterized three different genes of Anaplasma phagocytophilum strains infecting German Ixodes ricinus ticks in order to test whether they differ from strains in other European countries and the United States. A total of 1,022 I. ricinus ticks were investigated for infection with A. phagocytophilum by nested PCR and sequence analysis. Forty-two (4.1%) ticks were infected. For all positive ticks, parts of the 16S rRNA and groESL genes were sequenced. The complete coding sequence of the ankA gene could be determined in 24 samples. The 16S rRNA and groESL gene sequences were as much as 100% identical to known sequences. Fifteen ankA sequences were >/=99.37% identical to sequences derived from humans with granulocytic ehrlichiosis in Europe and from a horse with granulocytic ehrlichiosis in Germany. Thus, German I. ricinus ticks most likely harbor A. phagocytophilum strains that can cause disease in humans. Nine additional sequences were clearly different from known ankA sequences. Because these newly described sequences have never been obtained from diseased humans or animals, their biological significance is currently unknown. Based on this unexpected sequence heterogeneity, we propose to use the ankA gene for further phylogenetic analyses of A. phagocytophilum and to investigate the biology and pathogenicity of strains that differ in the ankA gene.