Polylactide Nanoparticles as a Biodegradable Vaccine Adjuvant: A Study on Safety, Protective Immunity and Efficacy against Human Leishmaniasis Caused by Leishmania Major.

Leishmaniasis is the 3rd most challenging vector-borne disease after malaria and lymphatic filariasis. Currently, no vaccine candidate is approved or marketed against leishmaniasis due to difficulties in eliciting broad immune responses when using sub-unit vaccines. The aim of this work was the design of a particulate sub-unit vaccine for vaccination against leishmaniasis. The poly (D,L-lactide) nanoparticles (PLA-NPs) were developed in order to efficiently adsorb a recombinant L. major histone H2B (L. major H2B) and to boost its immunogenicity. Firstly, a study was focused on the production of well-formed nanoparticles by the nanoprecipitation method without using a surfactant and on the antigen adsorption process under mild conditions. The set-up preparation method permitted to obtain H2B-adsorbed nanoparticles H2B/PLA (adsorption capacity of about 2.8% (w/w)) with a narrow size distribution (287 nm) and a positive zeta potential (30.9 mV). Secondly, an in vitro release assay performed at 37 °C, pH 7.4, showed a continuous release of the adsorbed H2B for almost 21 days (30%) from day 7. The immune response of H2B/PLA was investigated and compared to H2B + CpG7909 as a standard adjuvant. The humoral response intensity (IgG) was substantially similar between both formulations. Interestingly, when challenged with the standard parasite strain (GLC94) isolated from a human lesion of cutaneous leishmaniasis, mice showed a significant reduction in footpad swelling compared to unvaccinated ones, and no deaths occurred until week 17th. Taken together, these results demonstrate that PLA-NPs represent a stable, cost-effective delivery system adjuvant for use in vaccination against leishmaniasis.

Generation and characterization of dromedary Tenascin-C and Tenascin-W specific antibodies.

Tenascin-C (TNC) and tenascin-W (TNW), large hexameric glycoproteins overexpressed in the tumor microenvironment, are useful tumor biomarkers for theranostic applications. For now, polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies, as well as aptamers targeting TNC and TNW have been developed. However, the immunostaining sensitivity of antibodies is very heterogenous. The main aim of this study was to generate antibodies in dromedary that detect TNC and TNW, respectively. We show that immune sera from immunized dromedaries are able to specifically bind native TNC and TNW by ELISA and also to detect TNC and TNW in matrix tracks of mammary tumors by immunostaining. Furthermore, we demonstrate that purified IgG subtypes are able to interact specifically with TNC or TNW by ELISA and immunostaining. These camelid antibodies are a good basis to develop tools for the detection of TNC and TNW in the tumor microenvironment and could potentially have a broader application for early diagnosis of solid cancers.

Inhibitory Potential of Polyclonal Camel Antibodies against New Delhi Metallo-ß-lactamase-1 (NDM-1).

New Delhi Metallo-ß-lactamase-1 (NDM-1) is the most prevalent type of metallo-ß-lactamase, able to hydrolyze almost all antibiotics of the ß-lactam group, leading to multidrug-resistant bacteria. To date, there are no clinically relevant inhibitors to fight NDM-1. The use of dromedary polyclonal antibody inhibitors against NDM-1 represents a promising new class of molecules with inhibitory activity. In the current study, immunoreactivities of dromedary Immunoglobulin G (IgG) isotypes containing heavy-chain and conventional antibodies were tested after successful immunization of dromedary using increasing amounts of the recombinant NDM-1 enzyme. Inhibition kinetic assays, performed using a spectrophotometric method with nitrocefin as a reporter substrate, demonstrated that IgG1, IgG2, and IgG3 were able to inhibit not only the hydrolytic activity of NDM-1 but also Verona integron-encoded metallo-ß-lactamase (VIM-1) (subclass B1) and L1 metallo-ß-lactamase (L1) (subclass B3) with inhibitory concentration (IC50) values ranging from 100 to 0.04 µM. Investigations on the ability of IgG subclasses to reduce the growth of recombinant Escherichia coli BL21(DE3)/codon plus cells containing the recombinant plasmid expressing NDM-1, L1, or VIM-1 showed that the addition of IgGs (4 and 8 mg/L) to the cell culture was unable to restore the susceptibility of carbapenems. Interestingly, IgGs were able to interact with NDM-1, L1, and VIM-1 when tested on the periplasm extract of each cultured strain. The inhibitory concentration was in the micromolar range for all ß-lactams tested. A visualization of the 3D structural basis using the three enzyme Protein Data Bank (PDB) files supports preliminarily the recorded inhibition of the three MBLs.

Comparative subcutaneous repeated toxicity study of enoxaparin products in rats.

Enoxaparin is a low-molecular-weight heparin widely used for the prevention and treatment of thromboembolism. With the development of several enoxaparin biosimilars, real medical concerns about their safety and efficacy have been raised. This repeated dose toxicity study consists of preclinical toxicological evaluation of a biosimilar biological version of enoxaparin, the drug product "Enoxa", compared to the enoxaparin reference drug product, "Lovenox". Eighty white Wistar rats were treated with "Enoxa" versus the reference product, using subcutaneous therapeutic and toxic doses, varying from 3.5 to 100 mg/kg/day. Dose levels were adjusted and ultimately fixed at 3.5 and 20 mg/kg/day as therapeutic and toxic doses, respectively. A sodium chloride solution (0.9%) was used as the control, and the comparative study was conducted over periods of 14 and 28 days. Comparable effects were observed with few adverse effects at the administration dose of 20 mg/kg/day, for both enoxaparin biosimilar and reference products. Interestingly, mortality started only at high doses of 40 mg/kg/day and reached 25% at 100 mg/kg/day for both products. These results, as part of the recommended biosimilarity monitoring, demonstrated comparable toxicity profiles of "Enoxa" and "Lovenox" products in rats. Continuing investigation of biosimilarity on humans to confirm safety and efficacy is suggested.

Neutralizing Dromedary-Derived Nanobodies Against BotI-Like Toxin From the Most Hazardous Scorpion Venom in the Middle East and North Africa Region.

Scorpion envenoming is a severe health problem in many regions causing significant clinical toxic effects and fatalities. In the Middle East/North Africa (MENA) region, Buthidae scorpion stings are responsible for devastating toxic outcomes in human. The only available specific immunotherapeutic treatment is based on IgG fragments of animal origin. To overcome the limitations of classical immunotherapy, we have demonstrated the in vivo efficacy of NbF12-10 bispecific nanobody at preclinical level. Nanobodies were developed against BotI analogues belonging to a distinct structural and antigenic group of scorpion toxins, occurring in the MENA region. From Buthus occitanus tunetanus venom, BotI-like toxin was purified. The 41 N-terminal amino acid residues were sequenced, and the LD50 was estimated at 40 ng/mouse. The BotI-like toxin was used for dromedary immunization. An immune VHH library was constructed, and after screening, two nanobodies were selected with nanomolar and sub-nanomolar affinity and recognizing an overlapping epitope. NbBotI-01 was able to neutralize 50% of the lethal effect of 13 LD50 BotI-like toxins in mice when injected by i.c.v route, whereas NbBotI-17 neutralized 50% of the lethal effect of 7 LD50. Interestingly, NbBotI-01 completely reduced the lethal effect of the 2 LD50 of BotG50 when injected at 1:4 molar ratio excess. More interestingly, an equimolar mixture of NbBotI-01 with NbF12-10 neutralized completely the lethal effect of 7 and 5 LD50 of BotG50 or AahG50, at 1:4 and 1:2 molar ratio, respectively. Hence, NbBotI-01 and NbF12-10 display synergic effects, leading to a novel therapeutic candidate for treating Buthus occitanus scorpion stings in the MENA region.

A bispecific nanobody to provide full protection against lethal scorpion envenoming.

Envenoming following scorpion sting is a common emergency in many parts of the world. Our aim was to ameliorate the current 100-kDa horse plasma antivenom serum (PAS)-derived Fab'(2) to more quickly reach the highly diffusible scorpion toxins (7 kDa). We immunized dromedaries with toxins from Androctonus australis hector (Aah) scorpions and cloned the single-domain antibody fragments or nanobodies (15 kDa) from their B cells. Nanobodies against AahI' toxin (with AahII the most toxic compound of the venom) were retrieved from the libraries, and their AahI'-toxin neutralization was monitored in mice. Remarkably, the NbAahI'F12 fully protected mice against 100 LD(50) of AahI' administered intracerebroventricularly. Moreover, where PAS failed completely to neutralize 2 LD(50) of crude venom injected subcutaneously, the designed bispecific NbF12-10 against AahI'/AahII toxins succeeded in neutralizing 5 LD(50). Finally, in a challenge assay in which mice were subcutaneously injected with a lethal dose of scorpion venom, the subsequent intravenous injection of 85 microg of NbF12-10 protected all mice, even if the whole procedure was repeated 3 times. Furthermore, the NbF12-10 remained fully protective when mice with severe signs of envenoming were treated a few minutes before the untreated mice died.

Novel Human Tenascin-C Function-Blocking Camel Single Domain Nanobodies.

The extracellular matrix (ECM) molecule Tenascin-C (TNC) is well-known to promote tumor progression by multiple mechanisms. However, reliable TNC detection in tissues of tumor banks remains limited. Therefore, we generated dromedary single-domain nanobodies Nb3 and Nb4 highly specific for human TNC (hTNC) and characterized the interaction with TNC by several approaches including ELISA, western blot, isothermal fluorescence titration and negative electron microscopic imaging. Our results revealed binding of both nanobodies to distinct sequences within fibronectin type III repeats of hTNC. By immunofluroescence and immunohistochemical imaging we observed that both nanobodies detected TNC expression in PFA and paraffin embedded human tissue from ulcerative colitis, solid tumors and liver metastasis. As TNC impairs cell adhesion to fibronectin we determined whether the nanobodies abolished this TNC function. Indeed, Nb3 and Nb4 restored adhesion of tumor and mesangial cells on a fibronectin/TNC substratum. We recently showed that TNC orchestrates the immune-suppressive tumor microenvironment involving chemoretention, causing tethering of CD11c+ myeloid/dendritic cells in the stroma. Here, we document that immobilization of DC2.4 dendritic cells by a CCL21 adsorbed TNC substratum was blocked by both nanobodies. Altogether, our novel TNC specific nanobodies could offer valuable tools for detection of TNC in the clinical practice and may be useful to inhibit the immune-suppressive and other functions of TNC in cancer and other diseases.

Identification of potent nanobodies to neutralize the most poisonous polypeptide from scorpion venom.

Scorpion venom, containing highly toxic, small polypeptides that diffuse rapidly within the patient, causes serious medical problems. Nanobodies, single-domain antigen-binding fragments derived from dromedary heavy-chain antibodies, have a size that closely matches that of scorpion toxins. Therefore these nanobodies might be developed into potent immunotherapeutics to treat scorpion envenoming. Multiple nanobodies of sub-nanomolar affinity to AahII, the most toxic polypeptide within the Androctonus australis hector venom, were isolated from a dromedary immunized with AahII. These nanobodies neutralize the lethal effect of AahII to various extents without clear correlation with the kinetic rate constants kon or koff, or the equilibrium dissociation constant, KD. One particular nanobody, referred to as NbAahII10, which targets a unique epitope on AahII, neutralizes 7 LD50 of this toxin in mice, corresponding to a neutralizing capacity of approx. 37000 LD50 of AahII/mg of nanobody. Such high neutralizing potency has never been reached before by any other monoclonal antibody fragment.

VHH, bivalent domains and chimeric Heavy chain-only antibodies with high neutralizing efficacy for scorpion toxin AahI'.

Many efforts aim at solving the serious problems encountered with immunotherapy against scorpion envenoming. The most attractive approach consists in generating single-chain antibody fragments (scFv) as their pharmaco-kinetic properties should match closely those of the scorpion toxins. Although high affinity scFv reagents have been generated in the past, their production level, stability, and toxin neutralizing capacity remain disappointingly poor. In the current study, we identified one Nanobody (Nb), a single-domain antigen-binding fragment of a dromedary Heavy-chain antibody (HCAb) that recognizes specifically the Androctonus australis hector AahI' toxin. This Nb has excellent production, stability and solubility characteristics. With this Nb we further manufactured a tandem linked bivalent construct and assembled a HCAb with improved antigen binding due to avidity effects. All these constructs were shown in mouse models to possess a scorpion toxin neutralization capacity that exceeds by far all previous attempts with scFv-based materials, even when used at lower doses. It is therefore clear that in the near future Nanobodies will be at the core of novel serotherapeutics as they combine multiple benefits over other reagents to treat scorpion envenomed patients.

Dromedary immune response and specific Kv2.1 antibody generation using a specific immunization approach.

Voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels form cells repolarizing power and are commonly expressed in excitable cells. In non-excitable cells, Kv channels such as Kv2.1 are involved in cell differentiation and growth. Due to the involvement of Kv2.1 in several physiological processes, these channels are promising therapeutic targets. To develop Kv2.1 specific antibody-based channel modulators, we applied a novel approach and immunized a dromedary with heterologous Ltk- cells that overexpress the mouse Kv2.1 channel instead of immunizing with channel protein fragments. The advantage of this approach is that the channel is presented in its native tetrameric configuration. Using a Cell-ELISA, we demonstrated the ability of the immune serum to detect Kv2.1 channels on the surface of cells that express the channel. Then, using a Patch Clamp electrophysiology assay we explored the capability of the dromedary serum in modulating Kv2.1 currents. Cells that were incubated for 3h with serum taken at Day 51 from the start of the immunization displayed a statistically significant 2-fold reduction in current density compared to control conditions as well as cells incubated with serum from Day 0. Here we show that an immunization approach with cells overexpressing the Kv2.1 channel yields immune serum with Kv2.1 specific antibodies.

Venom conjugated polylactide applied as biocompatible material for passive and active immunotherapy against scorpion envenomation.

Scorpion envenoming represents a public health issue in subtropical regions of the world. Treatment and prevention need to promote antitoxin immunity. Preserving antigenic presentation while removing toxin effect remains a major challenge in toxin vaccine development. Among particulate adjuvant, particles prepared with poly (D,L-lactide) polymer are the most extensively investigated due to their excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability. The aim of this study is to develop surfactant-free PLA nanoparticles that safely deliver venom toxic fraction to enhance specific immune response. PLA nanoparticles are coated with AahG50 (AahG50/PLA) and BotG50 (BotG50/PLA): a toxic fraction purified from Androctonus australis hector and Buthus occitanus tunetanus venoms, respectively. Residual toxicities are evaluated following injections of PLA-containing high doses of AahG50 (or BotG50). Immunization trials are performed with the detoxified fraction administered alone without adjuvant. A comparative study of the effect of Freund is also included. The neutralizing capacity of sera is determined in naive mice. Six months later, immunized mice are challenged subcutaneously with increased doses of AahG50. Subcutaneous lethal dose 50 (LD50) of AahG50 and BotG50 is of 575 µg/kg and 1300 µg/kg respectively. By comparison, BotG50/PLA is totally innocuous while 50% of tested mice survive 2875 µg AahG50/kg. Alhydrogel and Freund are not able to detoxify such a high dose. Cross-antigenicity between particulate and soluble fraction is also, ensured. AahG50/PLA and BotG50/PLA induce high antibody levels in mice serum. The neutralizing capacity per mL of anti-venom was 258 µg/mL and 186 µg/mL calculated for anti-AahG50/PLA and anti-BotG50/PLA sera, respectively. Animals immunized with AahG50/PLA are protected against AahG50 injected dose of 3162 µg/kg as opposed all non-immunized mice died at this dose. We find that the detoxification approach based PLA nanoparticles, benefit the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of venom immunogen.

Immunized camel sera and derived immunoglobulin subclasses neutralizing Androctonus australis hector scorpion toxins.

Scorpion envenoming is a real health problem. The only specific treatment is immunotherapy with antibodies from immunized horses. The severity of scorpion envenoming and the rapid diffusion of the toxins into the blood compartment require an improvement of the present antivenom therapy. In this study, we report successful immunization of dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius) against the small weakly antigenic neurotoxins of Androctonus australis hector scorpion. Camel immune sera was tested for its specific antigenic reactivity and neutralizing capacity against Aah toxic fraction and AahII toxin. We demonstrate that a substantial proportion of polyclonal heavy chain antibodies bind to Aah toxins and in particular to AahII, the most toxic one scorpion venom component. Furthermore, we show that both dromedary sera and heavy chain antibody subclasses are capable of neutralizing the toxicity of Aah toxins in mice.