IFN-α and CD46 stimulation are associated with active lupus and skew natural T regulatory cell differentiation to type 1 regulatory T (Tr1) cells.

Immune suppressive activities exerted by regulatory T-cell subsets have several specific functions, including self-tolerance and regulation of adaptive immune reactions, and their dysfunction can lead to autoimmune diseases and contribute to AIDS and cancer. Two functionally distinct regulatory T-cell subsets are currently identified in peripheral tissues: thymus-developed natural T regulatory cells (nTregs) controlling self-tolerance and antiinflammatory IL-10-secreting type 1 regulatory T cells (Tr1) derived from Ag-stimulated T cells, which regulate inflammation-dependent adaptive immunity and minimize immunopathology. We establish herein that cell contact-mediated nTreg regulatory function is inhibited by inflammation, especially in the presence of the complement C3b receptor (CD46). Instead, as with other T-cell subsets, the latter inflammatory conditions of stimulation skew nTreg differentiation to Tr1 cells secreting IL-10, an effect potentiated by IFN-α. The clinical relevance of these findings was verified in a study of 152 lupus patients, in which we showed that lupus nTreg dysfunction is not due to intrinsic defects but is rather induced by C3b stimulation of CD46 and IFN-α and that these immune components of inflammation are directly associated with active lupus. These results provide a rationale for using anti-IFN-α Ab immunotherapy in lupus patients.

IFNalpha kinoid vaccine-induced neutralizing antibodies prevent clinical manifestations in a lupus flare murine model.

A major involvement of IFNalpha in the etiopathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus has been suggested by clinical observations, including the increase of serum levels of this cytokine in patients with active disease. Supporting this hypothesis, we have shown that expression of IFNalpha from a recombinant adenovirus (IFNalpha Adv) precipitates lupus manifestations in genetically susceptible New Zealand Black (NZB) x New Zealand White (NZW)F(1) mice (NZB/W) but not in BALB/c mice. In the present investigation, we have prepared an IFNalpha immunogen, termed IFNalpha kinoid, which, appropriately adjuvanted, induces transient neutralizing antibodies (Abs) but no cellular immune response to the cytokine and without apparent side effects. Using this preparation, we also showed that, in kinoid-vaccinated NZB/W mice, lupus manifestations, including proteinuria, histological renal lesions, and death triggered by IFNalpha Adv challenge were delayed/prevented as long as an effective threshold of anti-IFNalpha inhibitory capacity was present in the serum.

[Kinoids: a novel generation of specific immune therapy against cytokines]. / Les kinoïdes: une nouvelle génération de vaccins thérapeutiques.

The abnormal cytokine release in the stromal microenvironment of pathologic tissues, contributes to the pathogenesis of viral infections such as AIDS, cancer and auto-immune diseases. Neovacs developed therapeutic vaccines, named Kinoids, which induce anti-cytokine Antibodies. Kinoids are non toxic but immunogenic cytokine derivatives. Kinoid immunizations induce high titre of neutralizing Abs to the corresponding cytokine, is well tolerated and experimentally effective. In transgenic mice expressing huTNFalpha, the TNFalpha kinoid decreases clinical signs of Rheumatoid Arthritis and in mice challenged with syngenic CT26 tumor cell line huVEGF kinoid inhibits lung metastases. After validation by clinical trials, kinoid vaccines could represent a second generation of specific immune therapy to be used to combat ectopic cytokines.

Probiotics and oral health.

Probiotics are living microorganisms (e.g., bacteria) that are either the same as or similar to organisms found naturally in the human body and may be beneficial to health. Current researches have shown that the balance between beneficial and pathogenic bacteria is essential in order to maintain the oral health. Therefore, oral cavity has recently been suggested as a relevant target for probiotic applications. Dental caries can be seen as a microbial imbalance where the oral microbiota shift towards community dominance which produces acidogenic and acid-tolerant gram positive bacteria. Similarly, the accumulation of bacteria within the biofilm, facilitated by poor oral hygiene, predisposes to allogenic shifts in the microbial community, leading to the onset of periodontal inflammation. Probiotic bacteria belonging to the genus of Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium and Streptococcus have been proven effective for preventing caries by reducing the number of cariogenic bacteria in saliva after a short period of consuming the probiotic. In contrast, the effect of probiotics on improving gingivitis and periodontitis has been less investigated. The currently available studies on the effect of probiotics on periodontal pathogens and clinical periodontal parameters showed differing results depending on the strains used and the endpoints analyzed. Many of the clinical studies are pilot in nature and with low quality, therefore, properly conducted clinical trials, using probiotic strains with in vitro proven periodontal probiotic effects, are needed. The putative beneficial effects of probiotics on oral malodour have also been evaluated, but further evidence is needed to fully explore the potential of probiotics for preventing malodour.

Kinoids: a family of immunogens for active anticytokine immunotherapy applied to autoimmune diseases and cancer.

The complex homeostasis of tissues is coordinated by the cytokine network and imbalances in this network may result in chronic immune disorders. Key specific cytokines, such as TNF-alpha, IFN-alpha, IL-4 or VEGF have been demonstrated to be overproduced or abnormally released in the microenvironment of pathologic tissues. These findings have opened up the way to passive immunotherapy with anticytokine monoclonal antibodies. Even though passive immunotherapy has proved to be efficient, it is hampered by specific limitations. The discovery of a family of immunogens, the kinoids, consisting of inactivated cytokine derivatives, has led some to propose them for active immunotherapy as an alternative to passive immunotherapy. This review focuses on kinoids - on their validation in experimental mouse models and ongoing clinical trials. The advantages offered by this active immune therapy in terms of efficacy, safety and patient compliance will be stressed.

Control of allergic reactions in mice by an active anti-murine IL-4 immunization.

Pathogenesis of allergic inflammatory disorders is characterized by allergen-induced IgE stimulated by Th2 cytokines including mainly IL-4 overproduction. To counteract IL-4 effects in sensitized-BALB/c mice, we prepared an IL-4 derivative immunogen, made of KLH and murine IL-4 heterocomplex, termed mIL-4 kinoid. Murine IL-4 kinoid immunized mice produced high titer of anti-IL-4 neutralizing Abs. In contrast to KLH control immunization kinoid immunization reversed the allergic IgE:IgG ratio hallmark in rBet v 1a sensitized mice and reduced pulmonary eosinophil recruitment and bronchial hyperreactivity in Ova-sensitized mice. These data pave the way to alternative therapies to combat allergic conditions.

VEGF kinoid vaccine, a therapeutic approach against tumor angiogenesis and metastases.

Tumor growth depends on blood supply, requiring the development of new vessels, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) plays a central role in neoangiogenic processes. For this reason, VEGF represents a target for the development of new therapeutic antiangiogenic molecules. Clinical trials using anti-VEGF mAbs such as bevacizumab have validated the efficacy of this therapeutic approach but have also revealed adverse effects. Here we report that a VEGF-derived immunogen, consisting of a heterocomplex of a murine (m)VEGF and keyhole limpet hemocyanin, called "mVEGF kinoid," triggered a strong Ab immune response in mice. The anti-VEGF Abs inhibited both the proliferation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells cultured in the presence of mVEGF and the binding of mVEGF to its receptor-2 Flk-1. In mVEGF kinoid-immunized BALB/c mice challenged with syngeneic CT26 colorectal tumor cells, the number and size of lung metastases were significantly decreased. In human (h)VEGF kinoid-immunized BALB/c mice, high levels of serum Abs to hVEGF were present, and purified IgG from these mice decreased by > or =50% the tumor growth of human A673 rhabdomyosarcoma cells and HT29 colon carcinoma xenografted in Swiss nude and NOD/SCID mice, respectively. Tumor cell growth inhibition was similar to that observed in mice receiving therapeutic doses of bevacizumab. These experiments suggest that a therapeutic vaccine containing VEGF kinoid may represent a strategy for safely combating VEGF-dependent neovascularization and metastases occurring in malignant tumors.

TNFalpha kinoid vaccination-induced neutralizing antibodies to TNFalpha protect mice from autologous TNFalpha-driven chronic and acute inflammation.

The proinflammatory cytokine TNFalpha is a potent mediator of septic shock and a therapeutic target for chronic inflammatory pathologies including rheumatoid arthritis and Crohn's disease. As an alternative to anti-human TNFalpha (hTNFalpha) mAbs and other hTNFalpha blocker approved drugs, we developed an active anti-hTNFalpha immunotherapy, based on a vaccine comprised of a keyhole limpet hemocyanin-hTNFalpha heterocomplex immunogen (hTNFalpha kinoid) adjuvanted in incomplete Freund's adjuvant. In mice transgenic for hTNFalpha (TTg mice), hTNFalpha kinoid vaccination elicited high titers of Abs that neutralized hTNFalpha bioactivities but did not result in a cellular response to hTNFalpha. The vaccine was safe and effective in two experimental models. Kinoid-immunized but not control TTg mice resisted hTNFalpha-driven shock in one model and were prevented from spontaneous arthritis, inflammatory synovitis, and articular destruction in a second model. These data demonstrate an anti-cytokine induction of autoimmune protection against both acute and chronic hTNFalpha exposure. They show that active vaccination against a human cytokine can be achieved, and that the immune response can be effective and safe.