Specification of CNS macrophage subsets occurs postnatally in defined niches.

All tissue-resident macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS)-including parenchymal microglia, as well as CNS-associated macrophages (CAMs1) such as meningeal and perivascular macrophages2-7-are part of the CNS endogenous innate immune system that acts as the first line of defence during infections or trauma2,8-10. It has been suggested that microglia and all subsets of CAMs are derived from prenatal cellular sources in the yolk sac that were defined as early erythromyeloid progenitors11-15. However, the precise ontogenetic relationships, the underlying transcriptional programs and the molecular signals that drive the development of distinct CAM subsets in situ are poorly understood. Here we show, using fate-mapping systems, single-cell profiling and cell-specific mutants, that only meningeal macrophages and microglia share a common prenatal progenitor. By contrast, perivascular macrophages originate from perinatal meningeal macrophages only after birth in an integrin-dependent manner. The establishment of perivascular macrophages critically requires the presence of arterial vascular smooth muscle cells. Together, our data reveal a precisely timed process in distinct anatomical niches for the establishment of macrophage subsets in the CNS.

The Shape of µ-How Morphological Analyses Shape the Study of Microglia.

Microglia, the innate immune cells of the CNS parenchyma, serve as the first line of defense in a myriad of neurodevelopmental, neurodegenerative, and neuroinflammatory conditions. In response to the peripheral inflammation, circulating mediators, and other external signals that are produced by these conditions, microglia dynamically employ different transcriptional programs as well as morphological adaptations to maintain homeostasis. To understand these cells' function, the field has established a number of essential analysis approaches, such as gene expression, cell quantification, and morphological reconstruction. Although high-throughput approaches are becoming commonplace in regard to other types of analyses (e.g., single-cell scRNA-seq), a similar standard for morphological reconstruction has yet to be established. In this review, we offer an overview of microglial morphological analysis methods, exploring the advantages and disadvantages of each, highlighting a number of key studies, and emphasizing how morphological analysis has significantly contributed to our understanding of microglial function in the CNS parenchyma. In doing so, we advocate for the use of unbiased, automated morphological reconstruction approaches in future studies, in order to capitalize on the valuable information embedded in the cellular structures microglia inhabit.