Role of N-linked glycosylation in porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) infection.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRSV) is an enveloped single-stranded positive-sense RNA virus and one of the main pathogens that causes the most significant economical losses in the swine-producing countries. PRRSV is currently divided into two distinct species, PRRSV-1 and PRRSV-2. The PRRSV virion envelope is composed of four glycosylated membrane proteins and three non-glycosylated envelope proteins. Previous work has suggested that PRRSV-linked glycans are critical structural components for virus assembly. In addition, it has been proposed that PRRSV glycans are implicated in the interaction with host cells and critical for virus infection. In contrast, recent findings showed that removal of N-glycans from PRRSV does not influence virus infection of permissive cells. Thus, there are not sufficient evidences to indicate compellingly that N-glycans present in the PRRSV envelope play a direct function in viral infection. To gain insights into the role of N-glycosylation in PRRSV infection, we analysed the specific contribution of the envelope protein-linked N-glycans to infection of permissive cells. For this purpose, we used a novel strategy to modify envelope protein-linked N-glycans that consists of production of monoglycosylated PRRSV and viral glycoproteins with different glycan states. Our results showed that removal or alteration of N-glycans from PRRSV affected virus infection. Specifically, we found that complex N-glycans are required for an efficient infection in cell cultures. Furthermore, we found that presence of high mannose type glycans on PRRSV surface is the minimal requirement for a productive viral infection. Our findings also show that PRRSV-1 and PRRSV-2 have different requirements of N-glycan structure for an optimal infection. In addition, we demonstrated that removal of N-glycans from PRRSV does not affect viral attachment, suggesting that these carbohydrates played a major role in regulating viral entry. In agreement with these findings, by performing immunoprecipitation assays and colocalization experiments, we found that N-glycans present in the viral envelope glycoproteins are not required to bind to the essential viral receptor CD163. Finally, we found that the presence of N-glycans in CD163 is not required for PRRSV infection.

Mutations within scavenger receptor cysteine-rich (SRCR) protein domain 5 of porcine CD163 involved in infection with porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRS).

CD163, a macrophage-specific membrane scavenger receptor, serves as a cellular entry receptor for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). The removal of scavenger receptor cysteine-rich (SRCR) domain 5 (SRCR5) of CD163 is sufficient to make transfected cells or genetically modified pigs resistant to PRRSV-1 and PRRSV-2 genotypes, and substitution of SRCR5 with SRCR8 from human CD163-like protein (hCD163L1) confers resistance to PRRSV-1 but not PRRSV-2 isolates. However, the specific regions within the SRCR5 polypeptide involved in PRRSV infection remain largely unknown. In this report, we performed mutational studies in order to identify which regions or amino acid sequences in the SRCR5 domain are critical for PRRSV infection. The approach used in this study was to make proline-arginine (PR) insertions along the SRCR5 polypeptide. Constructs were transfected into HEK293T cells, and then evaluated for infection with PRRSV-2 or PRRSV-1. For PRRSV-2, four PR insertions located after amino acids 8 (PR-9), 47 (PR-48), 54 (PR-55), and 99 (PR-100) had the greatest impact on infection. For PRRSV-1, insertions after amino acids 57 (PR-58) and 99 (PR-100) were critical. Computer simulations based on the crystal structure of SRCR5 showed that the mutations that affected infection localized to a similar region on the surface of the 3-D structure. Specifically, we found two surface patches that are essential for PRRSV infection. PR-58 and PR-55, which were separated by only three amino acids, had reciprocal effects on PRRSV-1 and PRRSV-2. Substitution of Glu-58 with Lys-58 reduced PRRSV-1 infection without affecting PRRSV-2, which partially explains the resistance to PRRSV-1 caused by the SRCR5 replacement with the homolog human SRCR8 previously observed. Finally, resistance to infection was observed following the disruption of any of the four conserved disulfide bonds within SRCR5. In summary, the results confirm that there are distinct differences between PRRSV-1 and PRRSV-2 on recognition of CD163; however, all mutations that affect infection locate on a similar region on the same face of SRCR5.

Pressurized DNA state inside herpes capsids-A novel antiviral target.

Drug resistance in viruses represents one of the major challenges of healthcare. As part of an effort to provide a treatment that avoids the possibility of drug resistance, we discovered a novel mechanism of action (MOA) and specific compounds to treat all nine human herpesviruses and animal herpesviruses. The novel MOA targets the pressurized genome state in a viral capsid, "turns off" capsid pressure, and blocks viral genome ejection into a cell nucleus, preventing viral replication. This work serves as a proof-of-concept to demonstrate the feasibility of a new antiviral target-suppressing pressure-driven viral genome ejection-that is likely impervious to developing drug resistance. This pivotal finding presents a platform for discovery of a new class of broad-spectrum treatments for herpesviruses and other viral infections with genome-pressure-dependent replication. A biophysical approach to antiviral treatment such as this is also a vital strategy to prevent the spread of emerging viruses where vaccine development is challenged by high mutation rates or other evasion mechanisms.

Sbp1 modulates the translation of Pab1 mRNA in a poly(A)- and RGG-dependent manner.

RNA-binding protein Sbp1 facilitates the decapping pathway in mRNA metabolism and inhibits global mRNA translation by an unclear mechanism. Here we report molecular interactions responsible for Sbp1-mediated translation inhibition of mRNA encoding the polyadenosine-binding protein (Pab1), an essential translation factor that stimulates mRNA translation and inhibits mRNA decapping in eukaryotic cells. We demonstrate that the two distal RRMs of Sbp1 bind to the poly(A) sequence in the 5'UTR of the Pab1 mRNA specifically and cooperatively while the central RGG domain of the protein interacts directly with Pab1. Furthermore, methylation of arginines in the RGG domain abolishes the protein-protein interaction and the inhibitory effect of Sbp1 on translation initiation of Pab1 mRNA. Based on these results, the underlying mechanism for Sbp1-specific translational regulation is proposed. The functional differences of Sbp1 and RGG repeats alone on transcript-specific translation were observed, and a comparison of the results suggests the importance of remodeling the 5'UTR by RNA-binding proteins in mRNA translation.

A SAMHD1 mutation associated with Aicardi-Goutières syndrome uncouples the ability of SAMHD1 to restrict HIV-1 from its ability to downmodulate type I interferon in humans.

Mutations in the human SAMHD1 gene are known to correlate with the development of the Aicardi-Goutières syndrome (AGS), which is an inflammatory encephalopathy that exhibits neurological dysfunction characterized by increased production of type I interferon (IFN); this evidence has led to the concept that the SAMHD1 protein negatively regulates the type I IFN response. Additionally, the SAMHD1 protein has been shown to prevent efficient HIV-1 infection of macrophages, dendritic cells, and resting CD4+ T cells. To gain insights on the SAMHD1 molecular determinants that are responsible for the deregulated production of type I IFN, we explored the biochemical, cellular, and antiviral properties of human SAMHD1 mutants known to correlate with the development of AGS. Most of the studied SAMHD1 AGS mutants exhibit defects in the ability to oligomerize, decrease the levels of cellular deoxynucleotide triphosphates in human cells, localize exclusively to the nucleus, and restrict HIV-1 infection. At least half of the tested variants preserved the ability to be degraded by the lentiviral protein Vpx, and all of them interacted with RNA. Our investigations revealed that the SAMHD1 AGS variant p.G209S preserve all tested biochemical, cellular, and antiviral properties, suggesting that this residue is a determinant for the ability of SAMHD1 to negatively regulate the type I IFN response in human patients with AGS. Overall, our work genetically separated the ability of SAMHD1 to negatively regulate the type I IFN response from its ability to restrict HIV-1.

Restriction of HIV-1 Requires the N-Terminal Region of MxB as a Capsid-Binding Motif but Not as a Nuclear Localization Signal.

UNLABELLED: The interferon alpha (IFN-α)-inducible restriction factor MxB blocks HIV-1 infection after reverse transcription but prior to integration. Fate-of-capsid experiments have correlated the ability of MxB to block HIV-1 infection with stabilization of viral cores during infection. We previously demonstrated that HIV-1 restriction by MxB requires capsid binding and oligomerization. Deletion and gain-of-function experiments have mapped the HIV-1 restriction ability of MxB to its N-terminal 25 amino acids. This report reveals that the N-terminal 25 amino acids of MxB exhibit two separate functions: (i) the ability of MxB to bind to HIV-1 capsid and (ii) the nuclear localization signal of MxB, which is important for the ability of MxB to shuttle into the nucleus. To understand whether MxB restriction of HIV-1 requires capsid binding and/or nuclear localization, we genetically separated these two functions and evaluated their contributions to restriction. Our experiments demonstrated that the (11)RRR(13) motif is important for the ability of MxB to bind capsid and to restrict HIV-1 infection. These experiments suggested that capsid binding is necessary for the ability of MxB to block HIV-1 infection. Separately from the capsid binding function of MxB, we found that residues (20)KY(21) regulate the ability of the N-terminal 25 amino acids of MxB to function as a nuclear localization signal; however, the ability of the N-terminal 25 amino acids to function as a nuclear localization signal was not required for restriction. IMPORTANCE: MxB/Mx2 blocks HIV-1 infection in cells from the immune system. MxB blocks infection by preventing the uncoating process of HIV-1. The ability of MxB to block HIV-1 infection requires that MxB binds to the HIV-1 core by using its N-terminal domain. The present study shows that MxB uses residues (11)RRR(13) to bind to the HIV-1 core during infection and that these residues are required for the ability of MxB to block HIV-1 infection. We also found that residues (20)KY(21) constitute a nuclear localization signal that is not required for the ability of MxB to block HIV-1 infection.

Restriction of HIV-1 by rhesus TRIM5α is governed by alpha helices in the Linker2 region.

UNLABELLED: TRIM5α proteins are a potent barrier to the cross-species transmission of retroviruses. TRIM5α proteins exhibit an ability to self-associate at many levels, ultimately leading to the formation of protein assemblies with hexagonal symmetry in vitro and cytoplasmic assemblies when expressed in cells. However, the role of these assemblies in restriction, the determinants that mediate their formation, and the organization of TRIM5α molecules within these assemblies have remained unclear. Here we show that α-helical elements within the Linker2 region of rhesus macaque TRIM5α govern the ability to form cytoplasmic assemblies in cells and restrict HIV-1 infection. Mutations that reduce α-helix formation by the Linker2 region disrupt assembly and restriction. More importantly, mutations that enhance the α-helical content of the Linker2 region, relative to the wild-type protein, also exhibit an increased ability to form cytoplasmic assemblies and restrict HIV-1 infection. Molecular modeling of the TRIM5α dimer suggests a model in which α-helical elements within the Linker2 region dock to α-helices of the coiled-coil domain, likely establishing proper orientation and spacing of protein domains necessary for assembly and restriction. Collectively, these studies provide critical insight into the determinants governing TRIM5α assembly and restriction and demonstrate that the antiviral potency of TRIM5α proteins can be significantly increased without altering the affinity of SPRY/capsid binding. IMPORTANCE: Many members of the tripartite motif (TRIM) family of proteins act as restriction factors that directly inhibit viral infection and activate innate immune signaling pathways. Another common feature of TRIM proteins is the ability to form protein assemblies in the nucleus or the cytoplasm. However, the determinants in TRIM proteins required for assembly and the degree to which assembly affects TRIM protein function have been poorly understood. Here we show that alpha helices in the Linker2 (L2) region of rhesus TRIM5α govern assembly and restriction of HIV-1 infection. Helix-disrupting mutations disrupt the assembly and restriction of HIV-1, while helix-stabilizing mutations enhance assembly and restriction relative to the wild-type protein. Circular dichroism analysis suggests that that the formation of this helical structure is supported by intermolecular interactions with the coiled-coil (CC) domain in the CCL2 dimer. These studies reveal a novel mechanism by which the antiviral activity of TRIM5α proteins can be regulated and provide detailed insight into the assembly determinants of TRIM family proteins.

MxB binds to the HIV-1 core and prevents the uncoating process of HIV-1.

BACKGROUND: The IFN-α-inducible restriction factor MxB blocks HIV-1 infection after reverse transcription but prior to integration. Genetic evidence suggested that capsid is the viral determinant for restriction by MxB. This work explores the ability of MxB to bind to the HIV-1 core, and the role of capsid-binding in restriction. RESULTS: We showed that MxB binds to the HIV-1 core and that this interaction leads to inhibition of the uncoating process of HIV-1. These results identify MxB as an endogenously expressed protein with the ability to inhibit HIV-1 uncoating. In addition, we found that a benzimidazole-based compound known to have a binding pocket on the surface of the HIV-1 capsid prevents the binding of MxB to capsid. The use of this small-molecule identified the MxB binding region on the surface of the HIV-1 core. Domain mapping experiments revealed the following requirements for restriction: 1) MxB binding to the HIV-1 capsid, which requires the 20 N-terminal amino acids, and 2) oligomerization of MxB, which is mediated by the C-terminal domain provides the avidity for the interaction of MxB with the HIV-1 core. CONCLUSIONS: Overall our work establishes that MxB binds to the HIV-1 core and inhibits the uncoating process of HIV-1. Moreover, we demonstrated that HIV-1 restriction by MxB requires capsid binding and oligomerization.

Human cytosolic extracts stabilize the HIV-1 core.

The stability of the HIV-1 core in the cytoplasm is crucial for productive HIV-1 infection. Mutations that stabilize or destabilize the core showed defects on HIV-1 reverse transcription and infection. We developed a novel and simple assay to measure the stability of in vitro-assembled HIV-1 CA-NC complexes. The assay allowed us to demonstrate that cytosolic extracts strongly stabilize the HIV-1 core. Interestingly, stabilization of in vitro-assembled HIV-1 CA-NC complexes is not due solely to macromolecular crowding, suggesting the presence of specific cellular factors that stabilize the HIV-1 core. By using our novel assay, we measured the abilities of different drugs, such as PF74, CAP-1, IXN-053, cyclosporine, Bi2 (also known as BI-2), and the peptide CAI, to modulate the stability of in vitro-assembled HIV-1 CA-NC complexes. Interestingly, we found that PF74 and Bi2 strongly stabilized HIV-1 CA-NC complexes. On the other hand, the peptide CAI destabilized HIV-1 CA-NC complexes. We also found that purified cyclophilin A destabilizes in vitro-assembled HIV-1 CA-NC complexes in the presence of cellular extracts in a cyclosporine-sensitive manner. In agreement with previous observations using the fate-of-the-capsid assay, we also demonstrated the ability of recombinant CPSF6 to stabilize HIV-1 CA-NC complexes. Overall, our findings suggested that cellular extracts specifically stabilize the HIV-1 core. We believe that our assay can be a powerful tool to assess HIV-1 core stability in vitro.

SAMHD1 restricts herpes simplex virus 1 in macrophages by limiting DNA replication.

Macrophages play important roles in host immune defense against virus infection. During infection by herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1), macrophages acquire enhanced antiviral potential. Restriction of HSV-1 replication and progeny production is important to prevent viral spread, but the cellular mechanisms that inhibit the DNA virus in macrophages are unknown. SAMHD1 was recently identified as a retrovirus restriction factor highly expressed in macrophages. The SAMHD1 protein is expressed in both undifferentiated monocytes and differentiated macrophages, but retroviral restriction is limited to differentiated cells by modulation of SAMHD1 phosphorylation. It is proposed to block reverse transcription of retroviral RNA into DNA by depleting cellular deoxynucleotide triphosphates (dNTPs). Viruses with DNA genomes do not employ reverse transcription during infection, but replication of their viral genomes is also dependent on intracellular dNTP concentrations. Here, we demonstrate that SAMHD1 restricts replication of the HSV-1 DNA genome in differentiated macrophage cell lines. Depleting SAMHD1 in THP-1 cells enhanced HSV-1 replication, while ectopic overexpression of SAMHD1 in U937 cells repressed HSV-1 replication. SAMHD1 did not impact viral gene expression from incoming HSV-1 viral genomes. HSV-1 restriction involved the dNTP triphosphohydrolase activity of SAMHD1 and was partially overcome by addition of exogenous deoxynucleosides. Unlike retroviruses, restriction of HSV-1 was not affected by SAMHD1 phosphorylation status. Our results suggest that SAMHD1 functions broadly to inhibit replication of DNA viruses in nondividing macrophages.

Genetically modified pigs lacking CD163 PSTII-domain-coding exon 13 are completely resistant to PRRSV infection.

CD163 expressed on cell surface of porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs) serves as a cellular entry receptor for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). The extracellular portion of CD163 contains nine scavenger receptor cysteine-rich (SRCR) and two proline-serine-threonine (PST) domains. Genomic editing of pigs to remove the entire CD163 or just the SRCR5 domain confers resistance to infection with both PRRSV-1 and PRRSV-2 viruses. By performing a mutational analysis of CD163, previous in vitro infection experiments showed resistance to PRRSV infection following deletion of exon 13 which encodes the first 12 amino acids of the 16 amino acid PSTII domain. These findings predicted that removal of exon 13 can be used as a strategy to produce gene-edited pigs fully resistant to PRRSV infection. In this study, to determine whether the deletion of exon 13 is sufficient to confer resistance of pigs to PRRSV infection, we produced pigs possessing a defined CD163 exon 13 deletion (ΔExon13 pigs) and evaluated their susceptibility to viral infection. Wild type (WT) and CD163 modified pigs, placed in the same room, were infected with PRRSV-2. The modified pigs remained PCR and serologically negative for PRRSV throughout the study; whereas the WT pigs supported PRRSV infection and showed PRRSV related pathology. Importantly, our data also suggested that removal of exon 13 did not affect the main physiological function associated with CD163 in vivo. These results demonstrate that a modification of CD163 through a precise deletion of exon 13 provides a strategy for protection against PRRSV infection.

Generation of a Commercial-Scale Founder Population of Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus Resistant Pigs Using CRISPR-Cas.

Disease resistance genes in livestock provide health benefits to animals and opportunities for farmers to meet the growing demand for affordable, high-quality protein. Previously, researchers used gene editing to modify the porcine CD163 gene and demonstrated resistance to a harmful virus that causes porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS). To maximize potential benefits, this disease resistance trait needs to be present in commercially relevant breeding populations for multiplication and distribution of pigs. Toward this goal, a first-of-its-kind, scaled gene editing program was established to introduce a single modified CD163 allele into four genetically diverse, elite porcine lines. This effort produced healthy pigs that resisted PRRS virus infection as determined by macrophage and animal challenges. This founder population will be used for additional disease and trait testing, multiplication, and commercial distribution upon regulatory approval. Applying CRISPR-Cas to eliminate a viral disease represents a major step toward improving animal health.

The ability of TNPO3-depleted cells to inhibit HIV-1 infection requires CPSF6.

BACKGROUND: Expression of the cellular karyopherin TNPO3/transportin-SR2/Tnp3 is necessary for HIV-1 infection. Depletion of TNPO3 expression in mammalian cells inhibits HIV-1 infection after reverse transcription but prior to integration. RESULTS: This work explores the role of cleavage and polyadenylation specificity factor subunit 6 (CPSF6) in the ability of TNPO3-depleted cells to inhibit HIV-1 infection. Our findings showed that depletion of TNPO3 expression inhibits HIV-1 infection, while the simultaneous depletion of TNPO3 and CPSF6 expression rescues HIV-1 infection. Several experiments to understand the rescue of infectivity by CPSF6 were performed. Our experiments revealed that the HIV-1 capsid binding ability of the endogenously expressed CPSF6 from TNPO3-depleted cells does not change when compared to CPSF6 from wild type cells. In agreement with our previous results, depletion of TNPO3 did not change the nuclear localization of CPSF6. Studies on the formation of 2-LRT circles during HIV-1 infection revealed that TNPO3-depleted cells are impaired in the integration process or exhibit a defect in the formation of 2-LTR circles. To understand whether the cytosolic fraction of CPSF6 is responsible for the inhibition of HIV-1 in TNPO3-depleted cells, we tested the ability of a cytosolic full-length CPSF6 to block HIV-1 infection. These results demonstrated that overexpression of a cytosolic full-length CPSF6 blocks HIV-1 infection at the nuclear import step. Fate of the capsid assays revealed that cytosolic expression of CPSF6 enhances stability of the HIV-1 core during infection. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggested that inhibition of HIV-1 by TNPO3-depleted cells requires CPSF6.

Contribution of oligomerization to the anti-HIV-1 properties of SAMHD1.

BACKGROUND: SAMHD1 is a restriction factor that potently blocks infection by HIV-1 and other retroviruses. We have previously demonstrated that SAMHD1 oligomerizes in mammalian cells by immunoprecipitation. Here we investigated the contribution of SAMHD1 oligomerization to retroviral restriction. RESULTS: Structural analysis of SAMHD1 and homologous HD domain proteins revealed that key hydrophobic residues Y146, Y154, L428 and Y432 stabilize the extensive dimer interface observed in the SAMHD1 crystal structure. Full-length SAMHD1 variants Y146S/Y154S and L428S/Y432S lost their ability to oligomerize tested by immunoprecipitation in mammalian cells. In agreement with these observations, the Y146S/Y154S variant of a bacterial construct expressing the HD domain of human SAMHD1 (residues 109-626) disrupted the dGTP-dependent tetramerization of SAMHD1 in vitro. Tetramerization-defective variants of the full-length SAMHD1 immunoprecipitated from mammalian cells and of the bacterially-expressed HD domain construct lost their dNTPase activity. The nuclease activity of the HD domain construct was not perturbed by the Y146S/Y154S mutations. Remarkably, oligomerization-deficient SAMHD1 variants potently restricted HIV-1 infection. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggested that SAMHD1 oligomerization is not required for the ability of the protein to block HIV-1 infection.

Role of SAMHD1 nuclear localization in restriction of HIV-1 and SIVmac.

BACKGROUND: SAMHD1 is a nuclear protein that blocks lentiviral infection before reverse transcription in macrophages and dendritic cells. The viral accessory protein Vpx overcomes the SAMHD1-mediated lentiviral block by inducing its proteasomal degradation. RESULTS: Here, we identified the nuclear localization signal (NLS) of SAMHD1, and studied its contribution to restriction of HIV-1 and SIVmac. By studying the cellular distribution of different SAMHD1 variants, we mapped the nuclear localization of SAMHD1 to residues 11KRPR14. Mutagenesis of these residues changed the cellular distribution of SAMHD1 from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. SAMHD1 mutants that lost nuclear localization restricted HIV-1 and SIV as potently as the wild type protein. Interestingly, SAMHD1 mutants that localized to the cytoplasm were not degraded by nuclear Vpx alleles. Therefore, nuclear Vpx alleles require nuclear localization of SAMHD1 in order to induce its degradation. In agreement, SIVmac viruses encoding Vpx did not overcome the restriction imposed by the cytoplasmic variants of SAMHD1. CONCLUSIONS: We mapped the NLS of SAMHD1 to residues 11KRPR14 and studied the contribution of SAMHD1 nuclear localization to restriction of HIV-1 and SIV. These experiments demonstrate that cytoplasmic variants of SAMHD1 potently block lentiviral infection and are resistant to Vpx-mediated degradation. The nuclear Vpx alleles studied here are only capable of degrading a nuclearly localized SAMHD1 suggesting that Vpx-mediated degradation of SAMHD1 is initiated in the nucleus.

Identification of CD163 regions that are required for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) infection but not for binding to viral envelope glycoproteins.

CD163, a receptor for porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), possesses nine scavenger receptor cysteine-rich (SRCR) and two proline-serine-threonine (PST) domains. To identify CD163 regions involved in PRRSV infection, CD163 mutants were generated. Infection experiments showed resistance to infection following deletion of the SRCR4/5 interdomain or the Exon 13 that encodes a portion of PSTII. The mutation of a pentapeptide domain in SRCR5 and SRCR7 also conferred resistance. Mutant CD163 proteins that resisted infection retained the ability to interact with GP2, GP3, GP4 and GP5 viral glycoproteins. The contribution of multiple domains to infection but not to the binding of viral glycoproteins suggests that the envelope proteins may form multiple interactions with CD163, or that receptor regions important for infection have other cellular binding partners required for PRRSV infection. Finally, we mapped the localization the anti-CD163 2A10 antibody epitope.

Avian reovirus microNS protein forms homo-oligomeric inclusions in a microtubule-independent fashion, which involves specific regions of its C-terminal domain.

Members of the genus Orthoreovirus replicate in cytoplasmic inclusions termed viral factories. Compelling evidence suggests that the nonstructural protein microNS forms the matrix of the factories and recruits specific viral proteins to these structures. In the first part of this study, we analyzed the properties of avian reovirus factories and microNS-derived inclusions and found that they are nonaggresome cytoplasmic globular structures not associated with the cytoskeleton which do not require an intact microtubule network for formation and maturation. We next investigated the capacity of avian reovirus microNS to form inclusions in transfected and baculovirus-infected cells. Our results showed that microNS is the main component of the inclusions formed by recombinant baculovirus expression. This, and the fact that microNS is able to self-associate inside the cell, suggests that microNS monomers contain all the interacting domains required for inclusion formation. Examination of the inclusion-forming capacities of truncated microNS versions allowed us to identify the region spanning residues 448 to 635 of microNS as the smallest that was inclusion competent, although residues within the region 140 to 380 seem to be involved in inclusion maturation. Finally, we investigated the roles that four different motifs present in microNS(448-635) play in inclusion formation, and the results suggest that the C-terminal tail domain is a key determinant in dictating the initial orientation of monomer-to-monomer contacts to form basal oligomers that control inclusion shape and inclusion-forming efficiency. Our results contribute to an understanding of the generation of structured protein aggregates that escape the cellular mechanisms of protein recycling.

Analysis of the Role of N-Linked Glycosylation in Cell Surface Expression, Function, and Binding Properties of SARS-CoV-2 Receptor ACE2.

Human angiotensin I-converting enzyme 2 (hACE2) is a type I transmembrane glycoprotein that serves as the major cell entry receptor for SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. The viral spike (S) protein is required for the attachment to ACE2 and subsequent virus-host cell membrane fusion. Previous work has demonstrated the presence of N-linked glycans in ACE2. N-glycosylation is implicated in many biological activities, including protein folding, protein activity, and cell surface expression of biomolecules. However, the contribution of N-glycosylation to ACE2 function is poorly understood. Here, we examined the role of N-glycosylation in the activity and localization of two species with different susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection, porcine ACE2 (pACE2) and hACE2. The elimination of N-glycosylation by tunicamycin (TM) treatment, or mutagenesis, showed that N-glycosylation is critical for the proper cell surface expression of ACE2 but not for its carboxiprotease activity. Furthermore, nonglycosylable ACE2 was localized predominantly in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and not at the cell surface. Our data also revealed that binding of SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-2 S protein to porcine or human ACE2 was not affected by deglycosylation of ACE2 or S proteins, suggesting that N-glycosylation does not play a role in the interaction between SARS coronaviruses and the ACE2 receptor. Impairment of hACE2 N-glycosylation decreased cell-to-cell fusion mediated by SARS-CoV S protein but not that mediated by SARS-CoV-2 S protein. Finally, we found that hACE2 N-glycosylation is required for an efficient viral entry of SARS-CoV/SARS-CoV-2 S pseudotyped viruses, which may be the result of low cell surface expression of the deglycosylated ACE2 receptor. IMPORTANCE Understanding the role of glycosylation in the virus-receptor interaction is important for developing approaches that disrupt infection. In this study, we showed that deglycosylation of both ACE2 and S had a minimal effect on the spike-ACE2 interaction. In addition, we found that the removal of N-glycans of ACE2 impaired its ability to support an efficient transduction of SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 S pseudotyped viruses. Our data suggest that the role of deglycosylation of ACE2 on reducing infection is likely due to a reduced expression of the viral receptor on the cell surface. These findings offer insight into the glycan structure and function of ACE2 and potentially suggest that future antiviral therapies against coronaviruses and other coronavirus-related illnesses involving inhibition of ACE2 recruitment to the cell membrane could be developed.

Pressure-driven release of viral genome into a host nucleus is a mechanism leading to herpes infection.

Many viruses previously have been shown to have pressurized genomes inside their viral protein shell, termed the capsid. This pressure results from the tight confinement of negatively charged viral nucleic acids inside the capsid. However, the relevance of capsid pressure to viral infection has not been demonstrated. In this work, we show that the internal DNA pressure of tens of atmospheres inside a herpesvirus capsid powers ejection of the viral genome into a host cell nucleus. To our knowledge, this provides the first demonstration of a pressure-dependent mechanism of viral genome penetration into a host nucleus, leading to infection of eukaryotic cells.